Reading Library and Knowledge Discussion Blog

Understanding what is Structured Settlement mean ?

2010-01-20T15:24:00.001+07:00

Understanding the term of insurance, for those of you who do not usually contact with the world of insurance, or economics, may not know what is Structured Settlement mean. Structured Settlement is an agreement where the insurance company agrees to pay a predetermined amount of each cash for a certain period if see the accident. Certainly requires the documents as data requirements needed by the insurance. Time Or periods are also include in the series of agreements. These factors determine when to begin and end payments.

Technorati Tags: structured sattlement,economic term

Conference calling service need

2010-01-20T15:05:00.001+07:00

Communication now being very easy. many media can mediate people to communicate each other, like Hand phone, internet (social networking), etc. It consume less energy, we don’t need to go to where we should face our mate. Now we can meet our friend online, with PC or MAC we can meet somebody clearly facing our eyes and hear their words.

Some conferencing service available on the net, many features like VoIP and integrated phone conferencing are available. You would like to search first, to get suitable service for your conference calling service need .

Technorati Tags: conference calling,suitable communication media

Mathemtical Function on Microsoft Excel for beginner

2009-02-25T15:13:00.001+07:00

Excel is a table program that has the extraordinary functions. Every accounting process runs well using excel. Although still newbe, I create a fun video tutorial excel, on the add, reduction, and multiplication function. For the other functions i’ll make soon

Technorati Tags: excel tutorial,excel mathematical function,excel for beginner

Catch the criminal, in door game for school

2009-02-23T10:53:00.001+07:00

The article of this bold is to acquisition the perpetrator of a crime.

Send one being out of the room. This being will be the detective. While the being waits alfresco the room, anticipate of a simple crime. An archetype of a abomination ability be that addition blanket the teacher’s lunch. Addition archetype ability be that addition bankrupt the classroom CD player. Anniversary of the acceptance in the allowance charge anticipate of an account for area they were or what they were doing. It can be asinine or serious.

Before the detective comes aback into the room, accept a criminal. The bent charge anticipate of addition alibi, altered from the aboriginal one, but agnate abundant to be confusing. For example, if one account is, “I was bistro chips at the Burger Barn,” the additional account ability be, “I was bistro chips at Burger King.”

Have the detective appear into the room. The detective moves about the room, allurement anniversary apprentice to accompaniment their alibi. The detective can ask acceptance their alibis up to three times. All acceptance except the bent charge echo their alibis absolutely the aforementioned every time. The bent charge "lie" and change her account anniversary time she is asked.

If the detective suspects addition of committing the crime, he can allege that student. If he guesses correctly, he wins that round, and he gets to accept the abutting detective. If he doesn’t win, the bent confesses, and she becomes the abutting detective.

Technorati Tags: in door activity,school tips,school game

About Our Brain And Autism

2009-02-21T05:05:00.001+07:00

How is a memory or memories formed, and kept in mind in the brain? It’s a difficult question, except for the experts in the brain. So far, the development of brain science and psychology are still talking about the functions in the brain such as thalamus, amygdala, sensory cortices, working memory, the brain cortex, and others.
Questions about autism and other disorders is still on the discussion on brain. Neuroscientist, can answer its question easily, but how am I. Basically, I don’t agree that brain most closely connected to autism in Learning for Teachers training, however. I agree that educator or learner can make over the brain which is potential in autism or not. Brain that is located below the visual cortex and are responsible for most faculty, motor control and coordination. In his book, How to study Brain, David Sousa mentions that recent studies show the brain limbic system also supports the function and cognitive processes in the frontal lobe. (PS - amygdala, located in the limbic system)
There is also research that autism is also available to connect to the dysregulation certain amygdala function. Specifically, the research shows that the amygdala is less responsive with autism. This helps us understand the social impairments often seen in autism.
We explore some of limbic system from the Quantum Level 3 Learning more clarification so that hopefully will come later. We will see the role of the hippocampus (yes, that really what's called) and the role in the brain's limbic Sytem. Also has some connection to autism.

Technorati Tags: brain,amygdala,learning

Scholarship Programs on University of Amsterdam Faculty of Economics and Business

2009-02-21T04:40:00.001+07:00

PhD Position in Accounting
University of Amsterdam Faculty of Economics and Business / Amsterdam Business School
Amsterdam, 1018WB (Noord-Holland) , hours per week
Job description
The project is entitled: The Construction of Assurance Expertise on Sustainability
The past decade has seen the emergence of practice in assurance on sustainability reports (‘sustainability assurance’) with high profile professional accountancy bodies such as the International Auditing and Assurance Standards Board, placing the development of a sustainability assurance standard near the top of its strategic agenda. This in-depth longitudinal field study aims to enhance our theoretical and empirical understanding of the processes surrounding the emergence of sustainability assurance. Empirically, the study will examine the role and focus of key actors in the emergence of assurance concentrating on: how competing claims to professional expertise in sustainability assurance have been constructed and legitimized; the dominant and shifting assurance discourses; and how target audiences have reacted to these discourses. Theoretically, the study will draw on frameworks derived from Actor Network Theory and neo-institutional theory. The study calls for a broad range of research methods competencies, particularly in qualitative methods, an excellent ability think conceptually, competence in research liaison with organizations and high level individuals, and excellent external presentation skills.

Requirements

Required education/skills: University Graduate
* Master’s (MSc) in the area of accounting (or equivalent) with excellent examination results in both course work and the MSc thesis component;
* Interest and experience in field research (for example, in the MSc thesis);
* Demonstrated Mastery of both written and spoken English;
* Conviction to complete the requirements toward a PhD degree within four years.

Job type: Research / Advising

Workfield(s) :
- Teaching & Research(Scientific discipline: Economics)

Organization
University of Amsterdam
Faculty of Economics and Business / Amsterdam Business School
The University of Amsterdam (UvA) is a university with an internationally acclaimed profile, located at the heart of the Dutch capital. As well as a world center for business and research, Amsterdam is a hub of cultural and media activities. The University of Amsterdam is a member of the League of European Research Universities.
The Faculty of Economics and Business (FEB) at the Universiteit van Amsterdam (UvA) provides academic courses in accounting, finance, management, marketing, economics, and econometrics. It also conducts international research in these areas. The Amsterdam Business School and the Amsterdam School of Economics form part of the FEB.
Conditions of employment
Employment basis: Temporary for specified period

Duration of the contract: see below

Additional conditions of employment:
The appointment will initially be for 18 months, to be extended to a total of 4 years upon excellent performance (an evaluation will be held after 14 months). The salary will be in accordance with the University regulations for academic personnel, and will range from € 2,000 (first year) up to a maximum of € 2,558 (final year) gross per month. The collective employment agreement of the Dutch universities will be applicable. The PhD thesis should be finalized within four years. In this period, the candidate will also be expected to do some teaching (20% of the time).
Additional Information
Additional information about the vacancy can be obtained from:
Professor Brendan O’Dwyer
Telephone number: 31 20 525 4260
E-mail address: b.g.d.odwyer@ uva.nl
Or additional information can be obtained through one of the following links:
* About the organization (http://www.uva. nl/start. cfm/la=en/ th=main)
* About the department (http://www.abs. uva.nl/)
* About the function (http://www.uva. nl/vacatures/ vacatures. cfm/6FFD1F92- 1321-B0BE- 6890350BCDF7D43B)
Application
You can apply for this job before 21-11-2008 (dd-mm-yyyy) by sending your application to:
University of Amsterdam Business School, Personnel Department
Bernadette Clemens
Roetersstraat 11
1018 WB Amsterdam
The Netherlands
E-mail: applications- feb@uva.nl
When applying for this job always mention the vacancynumber AT 08-5037.

Technorati Tags: scholarships,programs,uiversity,amsterdam

Shinawatra University of Thailand offers Scholarship Programs

2009-02-21T04:26:00.001+07:00

100%
GPAX ≥ 3.00
Ranking in Top 20% of High School Program
Ranking in Top 10% in Mathematics and English

75% Ranking in Top 25% ± 2%
University Preparation Courses are required.
First Year Achievement :
- 1st semester ≥ 2.75
- 2nd semester ≥ 2.75
After completion of the above points, students are entitled for the continuing scholarships.
In case of incompletion of either one of conditions of the above points, the university reserves the right to reduce the scholarships.

50% Ranking in Top 50% ± 5%
University Preparation Courses are required.
First Year Achievement :
- 1st semester ≥ 2.75
- 2nd semester ≥ 2.75
After completion of the above points, students are entitled for the continuing scholarships.
In case of incompletion of either one of conditions of the above points, the university reserves the right to reduce the scholarships.

25%

Ranking in Top 50% of High School Program

* Subject to change without prior notices.

Download Scholarships Form

Letter of Ranking Certification (English)

Letter of Ranking Certification (Thai)

Graduate Programs

*Subject to approval from SIU graduate scholarship committee, thesis track compulsory
100% of tuition fee for student who have first-class honors or are ranked in the top 10 % of their fields of study
75 % of tuition fee for student who are ranked in the top 20 % of their fields of study

*Offered Automatically

50% of tuition fee for students who are ranked in the top 40% of their fields of study, and for government officials, state enterprise employees and SC Asset Corporation and Thaicom PCL employees.

25% of tuition fee for students who are ranked in the top 50% of their fields of study, or thosewho have worked at least 2 years in an area related to their selected options.

Download Scholarships Form

Letter of Ranking Certification (English)

Letter of Ranking Certification (Thai)

Technorati Tags: scholarships,thailand scholarships,programs,certification

Health Science Professional Scholarship in Malaysia

2009-02-20T00:39:00.001+07:00

International Medical University (IMU) has recognized that there are abounding Malaysian acceptance who aspire to be a health sciences professional. For assorted reasons, some of these acceptance are not able to accomplish their life-long ambition, including those acceptance whose families do not accept the banking assets to abutment them for access into an all-embracing academy like the IMU.

In appearance of this, the IMU has accustomed a cardinal of scholarships to be awarded to:

Two acceptance to accompany the undergraduate medical advance in Malaysia arch to the MBBS (IMU).
Two acceptance to accompany the absolute eight (8) semesters of the twinned undergraduate pharmacy advance arch to the MPharm (Hons) amount (in accord with the University of Strathclyde).
One apprentice to accompany the Bachelor of Pharmacy programme to be conducted wholly in IMU, arch to the BPharm (Hons).
Two acceptance to accompany the Bachelor of Nursing amount arch to the BNursing (Hons).

Students who ambition to administer charge accept accomplished bookish accomplishments calm with added qualities, including able extra-curricula activities and who, for banking reasons, would contrarily be clumsy to accompany a career in medicine, pharmacy or nursing.

These celebrated scholarships are accustomed to reflect the IMU’s addition to society. It additionally is an basic allotment of the University’s agents development arrangement to benedict adolescent individuals with aerial abeyant to be allotment of the approaching IMU adroitness for training of medical, pharmacy and affiliated bloom professionals. This is in band with our nations strive appear arete in apprenticeship and healthcare in the 21st century.

For more informations go to imu.edu.my or email to: enquiry@imu.edu.my

Technorati Tags: scholarships,health science,medical scholarship,professional scholarship

University Scholarship Award From Shell Petrolium

2009-02-20T00:08:00.001+07:00

The Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited (SPDC), operator of the NNPC / Shell / Total / Agip Joint Venture), invites applications from suitably qualified Nigerians for the 2008/2009 Shell Nigeria University Scholarship Awards. The awards, aimed at promoting academic excellence and manpower development in Nigeria, are tenable in Nigerian Universities only.

The Scholarship is in two categories - the National Merit Award (NM) and the Areas of Operation Merit Award (i.e. East [OE] or West [OW]).

National Merit Award (NM) - who can apply?
The National Merit Award (NM) University Scholarship is open to all Nigerian first year full-time degree students in Nigerian universities who are NOT indigenes of Shell's operational areas. Apply in writing using the application format below, and send in an envelope clearly marked NM 2008/2009 to:

The Head, Tertiary Scholarships,
The Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited
P. O. Box 230, Warri, Delta State

Areas of Operation Merit Award, East (OE) - who can apply?

The Areas of Operation Merit Award, East (OE) University Scholarship is open to first year full-time degree students in Nigerian universities who are indigenes of Shell's operational areas in Abia, Akwa Ibom, Imo Rivers and Bayelsa States (excluding indigenes of Ekeremor and Sagbama Local Government Areas).
Apply in writing using the format below, and send in an envelope clearly marked OE 2008/2009 to:

The Head, Tertiary Scholarships,
The Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited
P. O. Box 230, Warri, Delta State

Areas of Operation Merit Award, West (OW) - who can apply?

The Areas of Operation Merit Award, West (OW) University Scholarship is open to first year full-time degree students in Nigerian universities who are indigenes of Shell's operational areas in Bayelsa (i.e indigenes of Ekeremor and Sagbama Local Government Areas), Delta and Edo States. Apply in writing using the format below, and send in an envelope clearly marked OW 2008/2009 to:

The Head, Tertiary Scholarships,
The Shell Petroleum Development Company of Nigeria Limited
P. O. Box 230, Warri, Delta State

Those who did not gain admission during the 2008/2009 academic session should not apply.

Method of Application (PDF opens in a new window – 121kb)
Candidates who meet the above entry qualifications should apply by submitting a One-Page Resume (Curriculum Vitae) containing the information listed, with copies of relevant certificates.

Technorati Tags: scholarships,programs,awards,apply,applications

Bachelor of Science in Textile Engineering Scholarship

2009-02-18T23:55:00.001+07:00

The activity offers all-embracing acceptance the achievability to accept a scholarship and added allowances to alum from the Politecnico di Torino accessory a Bachelor of Science (BS) affairs in Textile Engineering at the Biella campus.

The action is answer by the Politecnico di Torino and is accurate by Camera di Commercio di Biella, Fondazione Cassa di Risparmio di Biella and Unione Industriale Biellese.

General advice on the Bachelor of Science in Textile Engineering program

Location: Biella (Città Studi university campus)

Language in which the courses are held: English

Length: 3 years

The activities will activate in September 2009.

For added advice on the Biella university campus, amuse appointment the Città Studi website.

Requirements

1. Accepting not Italian citizenship or actuality an Italian aborigine who has acquired a accessory academy authority abroad

2. Actuality at least 18 years old (by 01/09/2009)

3. Meeting the minimum requirements for the acceptance to Italian university. For added information, amuse appointment the Entry requirements page.

4. In the countries area it is required, accepting auspiciously anesthetized the state-level university acceptance assay (e.g. Gao Kao in China)

5. Ability of the English language, finer approved by an all-embracing acceptance (students who do not accommodate such acceptance may be asked to conduct a blast annual to analysis their ability of English)

6. Not accepting enrolled in a Bachelor of Science affairs of the Politecnico di Torino afore the 2009/2010 bookish year

7. Not actuality the almsman of added scholarships, Italian or foreign.

Scholarships Selection criteria

Applicants will be called based on their antecedent bookish career and on their Curriculum Vitae.

Amount of the scholarship

The gross bulk of the Biella Campus scholarship is 10.000 Euro per year (30.000 Euro for the complete period). The exact net sum is abased aloft the alone tax altitude of anniversary student, which can be absolute alone aloft the accession of the student. The bulk of the scholarship will not be added in case the apprentice will charge added time to alum than indicated.

The allocation of the scholarship is abased aloft the submission, aural 10 canicule from the accession in Italy of the student, of the aboriginal documentation, which charge accord with the affidavit absorbed to the online anatomy (see the “Selection outcomes” area below). Payment of the scholarship occurs periodically. The aboriginal instalment is abased aloft the control of the accordant affidavit (residence permit, Italian budgetary code, and coffer annual in the name of the scholarship recipient), all achievable aloft accession in Italy; for this reason, the aboriginal instalment is not paid at the moment of accession at the Politecnico di Torino, but in the advance of the afterward months (most apparently November).

Requirements to advance the scholarship

Given that it is not accessible to amalgamate the allowances accustomed from added than one scholarship, acceptance who are assigned addition abstraction acceptance while accepting the Biella Campus scholarship charge promptly acquaint the Politecnico di Torino. Payment of the scholarship will be abeyant if the bookish achievement of the almsman does not accommodated a satisfactory level.

How to apply

To apply, acceptance must, beneath the amends of actuality afar from the alternative process:

COMPLETE THE ONLINE APPLICATION FORM

Deadlines:

Application deadline: 8 p.m. (Italian time) on March 22nd, 2009.

Method: ample in the online appliance anatomy by aboriginal registering and accouterment your biographical information, logging in and allotment your akin and amount program, and afterwards appointment the application. Acceptance charge additionally accommodate advice on their antecedent educational career, accent abilities and assignment experience, and they charge attach the all-important affidavit in pdf format. Afterwards accepting completed these steps, the appliance for a scholarship will be advised complete.

N.B. The scholarship or activity for which the appellant is acceptable is not defined in the appliance form, back the Politecnico will automatically appraise your accommodation for the Biella Campus scholarship based on the advice you provide. At the end of the alternative process, the Politecnico di Torino will acquaint you if you accept been called for a Biella Campus scholarship (see the “Selection outcomes” area below).

The afterward affidavit charge be absorbed in pdf architecture to the online appliance form: Accessory Academy Diploma*

For acceptance from the countries area it is required, a affidavit assuming that the state-level university acceptance assay (e.g. Gao Kao in China) has been passed**

For acceptance from a civic academy arrangement in which preuniversity apprenticeship lasts for beneath than 12 years: a archetype that demonstrates that all the exams in the student´s affairs of abstraction accept been anesthetized (1 or 2 years, depending on whether the civic academy arrangement lasts for 11 or 10 years, respectively) OR, for acceptance who accept enrolled in a post-secondary institution, a affidavit that demonstrates the accomplishment of a post-diploma degree

Curriculum Vitae, anachronous and active (in English if possible) - best 3 pages

Letters of advertence (optional - 2 maximum)

A claimed addition letter (written by the applicant)

Optional English accent certificate

The aloft abstracts charge be rendered in English (preferably) , Italian, French, or Spanish.

* Applicants who accept not yet acquired a authority by March 22nd, 2009 charge in any case abide their appliance aural the said deadline; afterwards this date, they will be accustomed to re-enter the appliance anatomy alone to attach the affidavit and ample in the fields apropos to the authority up until July 15th.

** Applicants who accept not yet acquired such a affidavit by March 22nd, 2009 charge in any case abide their appliance aural the said deadline; afterwards this date, they will be accustomed to re-enter the appliance anatomy alone to attach this affidavit and ample in the fields apropos to the civic state-level university acceptance assay up until July 15th.

We emphasize that the abstracts apparent in the abstracts charge accompany with those amid in the online appliance form. Moreover, abortion to attach alike one of the aloft abstracts will aftereffect in exclusion from the alternative process.

Technorati Tags: scholarships,bachelor,science,textile egineering

Information Technology and Biosciences Scholarship in Rhode Island

2009-02-18T23:27:00.001+07:00

The Industry Partner for Information Technology and Biosciences in Rhode Island, recently announces it is accepting applications for two Doug Schwinn - Tech Collective Scholarship awards. The two scholarships will be awarded at $1,000 anniversary to changeable or boyhood aerial academy acceptance entering IT or Computer Science studies.

According to a abstraction conducted by the National Science Foundation, women comprised of alone 22% of Computer Science undergraduate degrees accepted in 2004-2005. In the workforce, statistics appearance alone 1 in every 4 women authority IT roles. Figures abatement for minorities. A 2008 address by the National Action Council for Minorities in Engineering begin that African Americans, Latinos and Native Americans represented 30% of academy attendees, but comprised of alone 12% of undergraduate STEM (science, technology, engineering and mathematics) degrees.

“The gender and ancestral gap in Rhode Island’s high-wage and high-tech career opportunities is a austere problem,” said Jo Ann Johnson, administrator of adolescence and apprenticeship programs for the Tech Collective. “The Doug Schwinn - Tech Collective Scholarships are advised to advance industry acquaintance as able-bodied as changeable and boyhood captivation aural it. We charge added assortment aural the IT industry, and we charge to accord acceptance who feel they ability not commonly accord in or allow to access IT fields the assets to do so. The Tech Collective would additionally like to admit the advance and generosity of Mr. Doug Schwinn for allotment these scholarships.”

Doug Schwinn is the above CIO of Hasbro and Treasurer of Tech Collective’s Board of Directors. His contributions to the Tech Collective accept been in several capacities and accommodate board participation, advocacy and a acute administration role in the operations of the organization.

Applications for the scholarship charge be submitted by March 30, 2009, with awards to be appear in May or June and broadcast for Fall 2009 semesters. Applicants charge be acknowledged Rhode Island affiliation and accessory a Rhode Island academy or university. Scholarship applications and added advice are accessible through the Tech Collective website (www.tech-collective.org) as able-bodied as at bounded aerial academy advice offices.

About Tech Collective:

Tech Collective is the technology industry affiliation of Rhode Island. Focusing on Association Building and Workforce Development, we are active technology growth, addition and abundance by chain industry, government and education. Tech Collective builds and strengthens association by creating partnerships, alms absorbing forums and acclimation state-wide accord in contest like Forward Thinking, Bio Ed, GRRL Tech and Technology Laureate’s Night. In announcement and developing a highly-skilled Rhode Island workforce, Tech Collective drives technology-based apprenticeship and training programs for acceptance in grades K -16 as able-bodied as for bounden and transitioning workers. For added advice about Tech Collective initiatives and events, appointment www.tech-collective.org.

Tech Collective

Giselle LaFrance, 401-829-8321

glafrance@tech-collective.org

Technorati Tags: scholarship,information technology,bioscience,applications,awards,advocacy,administration,college

Scholarship Program for adolescence from NOHVCC

2009-02-18T00:20:00.001+07:00

The National Off Highway Vehicle Attention Council (NOHVCC) afresh started a fresh affairs alive with adolescence account and attention corps. In addition, adolescent men and women who are absorbed in a career in OHV amusement administration accept a fresh befalling to added their education.

"The abstraction abaft this fresh affairs is twofold," explains the NOHVCC Executive Director Russ Ehnes. "It gives the adolescence of our country an befalling to apprentice about, and conceivably acquisition a career in, OHV recreation. On the added duke the affairs helps get the chat out to OHV acreage managers and clubs that there is this huge, primarily beginning ability that can be acclimated to advice them body and advance aisle systems. If the NOHVCC Adolescence Scholarship Affairs works as planned, it will be win-win for anybody involved."

At the beginning of the scholarship affairs is a cruise to the NOHVCC Annual Appointment in March for adolescent adults (18-25) who accept afresh alternate in OHV amusement projects. For 2009, the aboriginal year of the scholarship, Eric Hughes from the Western Colorado Attention Band and Carith Kamermans and Kristen Courtney from the Southwest Attention Band will be accessory the Appointment in Houston and giving a presentation on how adolescence band and OHV organizations and acreage managers can assignment together. In 2009, their costs will be adjourned as allotment of appointment abutment from the Federal Highway Administration's (FHWA) Recreational Trails Affairs (RTP).

Christopher Douwes of the FHWA wants to accomplish it accepted to NOHVCC Partners and supporters that RTP funds can be acclimated to armamentarium adolescence band alive on automatic aisle projects. "I would adulation to see automatic groups such as the NOHVCC advance an advancing alive accord with adolescence band organizations throughout the country to accumulate our OHV trails in prime condition. And if some of these adolescent bodies acquisition they get pleasure actuality complex with OHV amusement and end up advancing a career in that field, all the better."

Which brings us to the additional appearance of the NOHVCC Adolescence Scholarship Program. When a adolescent man or woman with acquaintance on OHV projects shows an absorption in advancing a career in OHV management, the scholarship affairs can accommodate the apprentice with charge for on-line or on-campus Marshall University (West Virginia) OHV Amusement Administration courses. The Nick J. Rahall II Appalachian Transportation Institute and the NOHVCC are currently allotment the Marshall University scholarship.

For added advice on youth, account and attention corps, the Recreational Trails Program, and how this workforce and allotment affairs can appear calm to account the approaching of affection OHV recreation, see beneath (all of this advice can additionally be begin on the Corps Network website.)

Technorati Tags: young education,scholarship,programs,youth scholarship

Critical Discourse Analysis Theory for Language Research

2009-02-12T15:09:00.001+07:00

Following the postgraduate lecture yesterday was very interesting, it gave to me a spirit to complete my Thesis, also get a lot of information from my colleagues. We attended the same seminar for our classmates, Sufiana Annur. This seminar was interesting because they used English-speaking seminars.

Sufianan Annur Thesis Proposal discussed one of the 19th century novel. She analyze the concept of racism of novel using Critical discourse Analysis (CDA), its a recent novel critic method and interesting to use as a theoretical research base. In Indonesia, the CDA is still new. Erianto's book that discusses the CDA, is strong enough to help spreading this theory in Indonesia. This theory was only limited to certain circles such as Students philosophy, art, and students of media publication.

Philosophy students are actually only those who follow the latest trend in the world theory. Most of those who have face and use CDA theory, is also use some current theories, such as Postmodern, Post-colonial, Semiology Barthes, Content Analysis, and the CDA. Several theories have new figures that complement each other, like M. Foucault, R. Barthes, Derrida, Gadamer, Y. Kristeva, etc.. This theory focus on the concepts of Culture, Arts, and Language

On the opportunity to fill this blog, I try to write a simple research using the CDA, Amin

Technorati Tags: CDA,Critical Discourse Analysis,Novel,Seni,Kebudayaan,Foucault,Barthes,Bahasa,Gadamer,Derrida,postmodern

Phd Position at Ghent University in Phonology, Psycholinguistics

2009-01-22T00:55:00.001+07:00

Deadline: 05-Feb-2009
Open to: candidates holding Master’s or equivalent degree in linguistics
Institution/ Organization: Ghent University
Department: German Language/Linguistics
Level: PhD
Specialty Areas: Phonology; Psycholinguistics

Description:
Applications are invited for a 4-year half-time Ph.D. position in the field of visual word recognition and/or reading acquisition at the German Department at Ghent University (salary 28.400 Euro per year).

The successful candidate will work in the project “Interactions of phonology and rthography in German visual word recognition” funded by the Flemish FWO. In this project, we are investigating the interaction of phonology and orthography in beginning readers of German and how this interaction develops over time as reading proficiency grows. The relevant data will be collected in Germany
(Cologne, Bonn, and Bielefeld).

The successful candidate will plan and conduct psycholinguistic experiments (reaction-time, eye-tracking) and analyse data. S/he will write a Ph.D. thesis on a topic related to this research at Ghent University.

Profile of the candidate:
- Master’s or equivalent degree in linguistics (i.e. e.g. General Linguistics, German Linguistics, Psycholinguistics, or Clinical Linguistics) ,
- Background in experimental psycholinguistics and statistical data analysis,
- Good knowledge in at least one of the following areas: phonology, reading acquisition, visual word recognition,
- Good command of English and German.

The grant starts during spring 2009. Application letters including a short statement of interest, a full CV, a copy of the required diploma, and the names of two academic referees should be sent by 5 February 2009.

More information can be obtained by e-mail from Prof. Dr. Martina Penke.
Application Deadline: 05-Feb-2009

Mailing Address for Applications:
Attn: Prof. Martina Penke
Faculteit Letteren en Wijsbegeerte, Vakgroep Duits
Blandijnberg 2
Gent 9000
Belgium

Contact Information:
Prof. Martina Penke
Martina.Penke@UGent.be

Source: Phd Position at Ghent University in Phonology, Psycholinguistics

Language Structure (Modernism Concept)

2008-08-07T01:28:00.003+07:00

To get comprehension about postmodern concept

To recognize farther about postmodern concept, better precede with understanding of about modernisme. By comprehending modernisme, we will be more easy to comprehend postmodernisme later, as previously showed in my post -how to critic bellesletters with postmodern analysis-, postmodernisme is idea which criticize many modernisme concepts.

Modernisme Conception have been long enough become rationale in so many matters, and have become think concept of commons. In language context, modernisme have got very strong base with structuralisme of Ferdinand Saussure. Language structuralisme makes language can be analyzed with more theoretical and is not mixed with other concepts outside language.

Language Structuralisme relates differention of language element in 3 big elements; Langue, Parole, Langage. Parole is language of indifidul which depend on each specification of indifidual term. Broader Langue than Parole, namely language at a certain social concept which have been arranged and comprehended in social region. While Langage embosom both language concept, namely all kinds of language symptom that happened, either through individually and also social.

Besides 3 divisions which was mentioned, structuralisme define sign concept by dividing it become two shares; signified and signifier. Signified is existing concept in individual brain, while Signifier is something (can word, sign, and also index) used to mark existing concept in individual brain. Both this shares can not be dissociated and each other is related or relevant, with existence of both attachment, hence language system become stable.

(The first step to understand postmodern)

Go aboard with Inlaks Scholarships

2008-08-02T03:17:00.003+07:00

Inlaks Scholarships provide the opportunity to young people with exceptional talent in any field to broaden their vision abroad and improve their skills to operate in society, thus making them a future vehicle of change in their environment. The scholarships are of two types: university courses and specific programs.

University Courses
Scholarships for up to 2 years at top American, European and UK institutions, for degrees in all kind of subjects, except Engineering, Computer Science, Urban Planning, Business Studies, Medicine, Public Health, Indian Studies and History. Candidates must have admission to their proposed course of studies before applying.

Specific Programs Proposed by the Candidate
Scholarships for research, training or professional improvement to be carried out abroad either independently, or attached to a leading institution. Candidates are expected to provide full details of their proposed programs, including time and travelling plans, a full breakdown of costs, and evidence of agreement with such institutions if required.

Eligibility

Scholarships are open to all Indian citizens of either sex who hold a good degree from a recognised university and are resident in India at the time of application.
It is essential to have prior admission to the institution and course chosen. The Foundation will not consider candidates without admission or pending admission. The institutions concerned must only be top rank.
Candidates must be below 30 years of age on the first of July in the year of application. Preference will be given to candidates who have not yet studied abroad. Candidates who are already studying or have started their program abroad are not eligible.
The award of other grants, teaching assistantships and support from other sources for the proposed programme will be regarded by the Foundation as a positive factor. The Foundation also encourages applications from young people currently employed.

How We Decide

The Inlaks Foundation has been awarding scholarships to deserving young Indian since 1976. Few other foundations have during this period, given as many scholarships in as many and such varied fields.
The key to Inlaks is flexibility. We look for the unusual, we search out a special talent and we spot people with flair. And once we are convinced that we have found it, we will do everything possible to accommodate a worthy candidate.
It is perhaps for this reason that a list of Inlaks alumni reads like a "Who's Who" of young India.

So what should you be concerned about?

Your achievements, academic and otherwise. We will need proof that you are an achiever.
Your potential. We pride ourselves on judging potential as much as performance. It isn't just what you have already achieved; it's what we can help you achieve in the future.
The suitability of your course, project or programme. You must persuade us that the course/ programme is right for you and that you are right for it.

Application and Selection Procedure
Application forms are available from the 10th of January to 15th of April from Inlaks Foundation, P.O. Box 2108, Delhi - 110 007. They must be completed by the Candidate and submitted at the same address by 15th of April. They must include:

Evidence of admission to a university or a course, and full details of the institute's financial requirements.
One self - addressed stamped, (Rs. 6.00) envelope (4" X 9").
Candidates in architecture, fine and applied arts, and related subjects must submit twelve colour transparencies of recent creative work in a plastic folder, giving the size of the original, the material used and the date of completion. This material will not be returned. Candidates for Film, Dance and Acting must submit videocassette or CD, which will be returned. Candidates for Music should submit tapes/scripts.
Evidence of any outstanding achievements in extra-curricular activities in any field.
Do not send copies of academic certificates with the completed form. These will be needed only at the time of the final interviews. An independent Inlaks Selection Committee carries out the selection.

Applications received are analysed and evaluated, and the Committee subsequently calls the most interesting candidates for interviews. All applicants must be available for interviews in India. They usually take place in Delhi at the end May, in two stages: preliminaries, and for those who make it, finals. Candidates short-listed for the interviews will have to arrange for their own travel and accommodation. Candidates who do not receive any communication by 1st of June must assume that their applications have not been successful.

Terms of the Scholarship
The duration of the scholarship is up to 2 years. It covers for the period granted tuition fees, adequate living expenses and one-way travel. In case of specific programs the financial coverage will be discussed directly with the candidate. Those opting for courses lasting for more than 2 years (i.e. Ph.D.) will have to seek funding from other sources. Acceptance of other scholarships, teaching assistantships and part time jobs are welcome after approval from the Foundation.

Scholarship will not be awarded to candidates whose proposed course of study or specific project requires field trips back to India during tenure.

Scholarships are awarded in June generally for commencement in subsequent September and October.

Application Form
Download Application Form (.doc format)

Source: Inlaks Scholarships Abroad

Standard Journalist Question in testing reading comprehension for student

2008-07-19T02:56:00.000+07:00

Improvement of reading quality is one of purpose in education. Students will be able to master their reading material if they are supported with quality of good reader. Reading comprehension is hardly required to assist student improvement in their learning.

Actually, teacher has had separate tips in assessing reading comprehension, but sometimes untapped optimally.

There are tips drawn from Alvimann & Morgue article to assist teacher in assessing reading comprehension, that is using questions which is often applied by journalist in interview.

Reading comprehension is easily catched and assessed by giving 5 W & 1 H questions. Yes, questions of standard journalist interview, What, Who, When, Why, Where, and How.

Question of "What" is applicable to open what's going on the reading materials. Question of “Who” is applied to ask whosoever involving in the reading material. “Where” is applied to know case existence or places in reading material. “When” is applied to know time nuance or time of a case in reading material. “Why” is applicable to ask circumstantial questions, like opening case causality in reading material. And the last, How is applied to express farther reading comprehension based on the text material.

Doctoral Opportunities for Clinicians and Scholarships (DOCS) Program

2008-07-17T22:40:00.001+07:00

Are you a clinician or a therapists? if so, you can catch this opportunity to improve your education grade. This program was established id 1979, and every year the program give foundation award to 25 Phisical Therapists. You can get $292,500 In Doctoral Scholarships. This year, The Foundation for Physical Therapy Board of Trustees recently awarded a total of $292,500 in Promotion of Doctoral Scholarships (PODS I & II) to 25 physical therapists.

Therapists or physical therapist assistants who have completed at least two full semesters or three full quarters of their coursework toward a doctorate can promote their researches to the programs. If the research has been approved, you will gain the tuitions.

For further information and support you can go online at http://www.FoundationforPhysicalTherapy.org.

Get $500 per semester tuitions on Automatic Transfer Scholarship

2008-07-16T22:43:00.002+07:00

Automatic Transfer Scholarship program is given to students who are transferring as new. The student can apply the transfer and scholarship application to University of Houston-Clear Lake from a community college or other university, and you may be eligible to receive the scholarship.

Qualified transferred student get scholarship value at $500 per semester. You should have 3.00 or higher cumulative grade point average (GPA). Don’t worry if you cannot gain this average point, if you have lower, you will get $400 per semester with 2.75-299 cumulative GPA for nine or more semester hours.

Visit www.uhcl.edu/scholarships/transfer to applay, and get the opportunity for your study. For more information, call 281-283-2500 to speak to an enrollment management counselor.

How to Critic Belles-Letters with Postmodern Analysis

2008-07-16T04:29:00.001+07:00

By Kang Bull

Art is the product of idea, writer can pour all his idea and desire. On this side, in the process of writing, writer is the king of his inspiration. However, after the production has handed by the reader, all cannot deny the reader involvement in comprehending and interpreting the masterpiece.

Belles-lettres in this decade peep out many new idea. Among others is postmodern, namely form the idea which have based on modernity. However, it critics the modernity itself. The postmodern critic has the unique characteristic and tends to refuse all regularity which exists in modernism. Although postmodernism is basically based on modernism, assuming postmodernism as enlargement from modern principles is not correct matter and too hasty. Principally, this new concept, step by step find its type and have the tendency to critic its grand philosophy; modernism.

Conducting critic to literature by postmodern principle is a continuous new matter which still developed. So that the effort in criticizing belles-lettres is the effort to search postmodern principles in belles-lettres. As other concept, postmodern also have the philosophic spirit of which able to be made as assessment base to a belles-lettres. There are many indicators and philosophical lines to critic belles-lettres on kinds of side. I will list and study it on the next post.

Finding Good Translation Program

2008-07-12T20:51:00.002+07:00

By Kang Bull

I have just looked around to find any translation program on the net. I got many, but the translation programs or tools are too limited. Some give dictionary tool and we take our word there and we get the result, but it is just words or phrases that give me more confuses. Some dictionary tool or translation tool may give phrases translation but without any interpretation or local mean. I think it is useless for working on complex sentences, because of its lack of truth and matching interpretation. Before I am getting saturated, I than search for translation program with human processing interpretation, still on the net.

I fall on a site, Out of the blue! My eyes focus on the words on the site "We respond to 95% of all emails within 1 hour" they said. I am shagging than, how does it work? The site provides translation and interpretation on many languages. As I mean, the site I need must base on human worker to translate than the result become more reliable. Ya, this site has many translator workers that work on the job separately as fast as possible and give more choices on translation result model such as subtitling, DTP, etc. This site (www.iaflindia.com) can do the translation jobs in many ways. By just sending an email contains article or application or sistem requirement will to translate, and we get the result without wasting time.

If you have many translation jobs like me, and need to translate on Asian language, you can go to the site to help you, and the benefit is for you, because its site gives you reliable translation fast. One thing I like this site is its providing many Asian language translations, such as India translation", "Arabic translation", "Farsi translation" or "Hindi translation". You can try this site for your translation job, and may give you more opportunity to do other jobs while waiting your translation result. Good luck!

Why is education important

2008-07-11T03:28:00.000+07:00

By Kang Bull

Why is education important ? It may be a question from our daily life, but everybody has their special reason to answer it, so am I. I just mean that importance of education is the efficiency to know our life need. Education is not just so called “school, collage, doctoral or etc. Education is our daily growing life, and we get everything benefit from our environment. So, think that our life is education it self, and it is the real education purpose. I have some reasons why our life is education it self.

Education is a real important thing in human life. Education aims to point and guides man to be adult, at least it is the definition and philosophy of education from WJ. Langveld. A man can Interact with others of course requires morale peripheral and human capability, causing good social interaction. Without education, someone will become awkward and cannot interact carefully with others.

Since baby, humans always gets education and knowledge from their environment. Baby can record and imitate what was done by adult, and later will very useful in process of their further life. He can differ which one is his father or his mother, and it just an early sex education for baby on how to know and differ his parent sexuality (I will discuss later on other post about an elementary sex education). To get guidance to appropriate knowledge, they require matching education of environmental requirement and the morale law of the environment. Concordance with the moral environment is the basic need why education is so importance.

With education, one can be grouped on the social strata of his social environment. Education also functions to give knowledge about life efficiency. Someone would easily break his problems --social, finance, family-- if he has efficiency and knowledge required. a Tailor of course has efficiency and knowledge about sewing, he gets money by sewing, his monetary and family need can be fulfilled with tailoring.

It is just a few logical idea, why education is so important in life. The last think of education for me is; “Education makes someone can easily get what he wants.” Life, grow, develop, your life by social learning! Don’t let your school become the only one knowledge developer!

Contextual Translation tips

2008-07-11T03:03:00.002+07:00

By Kang Bull

Traveler, Student and Businessman sometimes faces linguistic problem when relating to the foreign language context. If you have a plan to go to aboard, the first question you will think would be the location and its language. How to buy, how to book a room, etc. and basically you have chance to prepare your language before going. As a second language, foreign language needs a good learning technique, and more times. You may take a fast course to get little functional and applied language. Some of you may have a guidance or friend there and you will learn there step by step. Whatever your way to get foreign language learning is up to the target of your need but the time problem on learning foreign language is the basic bearer for who don’t have any time to take course.

How if your time don’t compromise with you? Or you don’t have time to study the language because you have to fill your application now. Facing problem like this, you should think smart and quickly. When you late, your opportunity will lose. I have some tips to brake it. As my experience on this problems, the first I should think is “dictionary”, of course if I have dictionary on the language I mean. To read dictionary, firstly I open the grammar guide in the dictionary, than I choose the word one by one as grammar guide, distinguish noun and verb, and how to place it, and don't forget about the collocation as its contextual meaning. It can be done easily when you have little bit of knowledge about language and its culture. If you haven’t anything about language you wish to translate, don’t try it or your language formation become funny or become magic spell (mantra).

You will need the third party agent to fill it. Open your laptop or computer and go online, there are many translation programs which can help you as fast as possible. You can go http://www.iaflindia.com and you can put your homework on English translator online programs if you wish to translate to English, word by word or sentences. Even If you want to translate your need in west Asian language, like India language, Arabic language, or Persian language having word difficult enough, you can get your result within less than an hour and of course contextual. Just amazing online program!

Hong Kong-Vincennes University Scholarship

2008-07-01T02:32:00.003+07:00

Vincennes University offers tuition/housing grants ranging from $3,000 to $6,000 per year.

Qualifications

* Hong Kong resident
* Qualify for admission
* Preference given to math, science, and business majors
* Amount of award is based on GPA and English proficiency
* Submit a completed application packet
* Submit a maximum 500-word essay that describes your academic interest and why you would like to study at VU

Deadline
Application and all supporting documents must be received by July 1. Consideration will be given to late applications if funds are still available.

Submit application materials before July 1 to:
Institute of International Education/China - Hong Kong
Room 601 General Commerce Building
156-164 Des Voeux Road Central, Hong Kong

Submit application materials after July 1 to:
Admissions Office
Vincennes University
1002 N. First Street
Vincennes, IN 47591

FAX: 812-888-5707

Email: vuadmit@vinu.edu

Source: http://www.vinu.edu

2008 Chinese Government Scholarship and Xiamen University Scholarship

2008-07-01T02:16:00.004+07:00

I. Introduction to the scholarship

The Chinese Government Scholarship is a full scholarship set up by the Ministry of Education of China to enable foreign students to study in China. The purpose of the scholarship is to encourage and support international educational exchanges, and to establish internationally first-class Chinese universities.

Xiamen University (XMU) is a national key university affiliated to the Ministry of Education. XMU is to begin independent enrolment of foreign students under this scholarship as from the beginning of the 2008 academic year. Welcome foreign students to apply for the master's or doctoral programmes, whether taught in English or in Chinese.

Exemption from registration fees, tuition fees, cost of basic learning materials and accommodation;

Living allowance issued monthly by XMU to each scholarship student:

Master's students: 1,100 per month Doctoral students: 1,400 per month

One-off settlement subsidy: 600 per person

Textbooks and other materials: 500 person per year

Comprehensive medical insurance: for details of cover see http://www.csc.edu.cn

Eligibility: Full-time master's and doctoral candidates starting in the 2008 academic year.

Programme start: September 2008

Scholarship duration:

2-3 years for master's programmes,

3-4 years for doctoral programmes,

(1-2 years Chinese language foundation studies)

Xiamen University (XMU) Scholarship: recipients will have their tuition fees covered,

Eligibility:

Full-time bachelor's, master's and doctoral candidates starting in 2008 academic year.

Programme start: September 2008

Scholarship duration:

4-5years for undergraduate programmes,

2-3years for master's programmes,

3 years for doctoral programmes,

The recipients' academic performance will be assessed each year and only those achieving the required standard will have their scholarship renewed for the following year.

II. Academic disciplines

As a way of enhancing the internationalisation of the university, XMU has launched several master's programmes open to outstanding foreign students. The programmes are taught in English, with the aim of fostering talented international students with both professional competence and knowledge of Chinese culture and society.

Master's programmes taught in English (2 years full-time)

School	Programme	Degree Awarded
Humanities	Chinese Culture	Master of Arts
Law	Chinese Civil and Commercial Law	Master of Law
International Relations	Asian-Pacific International Relations	Master of Law
Economics	Chinese Economy	Master of Economics
Oceanography and Environmental Science	Marine Affairs	Master of Science
Life Sciences	Biochemistry and Molecular Biology	Master of Science
Chemistry and Chemical Engineering	Chemical Engineering	Master of Engineering

Programmes taught in Chinese ( full-time)

Most programmes at XMU are taught in Chinese. Currently, XMU offers doctoral programmes in 134 disciplines, master's programmes in 217 disciplines, undergraduate programmes in 79 disciplines.

Undergraduate programmes available for applicants please see the web:

http://admissions.xmu.edu.cn/website.aspx?language=en&website_id=3

Master's programmes available for applicants, please see the web:

http://admissions.xmu.edu.cn/website.aspx?language=en&website_id=27

Doctoral programmes available for applicants please see the web:

http://admissions.xmu.edu.cn/website.aspx?language=en&website_id=33

Note: Applicants applying for postgraduate programmes taught in English except the 8 master's programmes mentioned above should contact with supervisors of the school first.

III. Candidate requirements:

1. Bachelor's candidates (only for XMU Scholarship) should be with a high school diploma and must be in a good state of health;

2. Master's candidates should be with a Bachelor's Degree or equivalent or higher and must be in a good state of health;

3. Doctoral candidates: should be with a Master's Degree or equivalent or higher and must be in a good state of health;

4. Chinese Proficiency for Chinese-language-taught programmes ：

• Humanities candidates, including Economics, Management, Law or the Arts: Minimum level of HSK Secondary Grade C (Level 6)

• Science candidates: Minimum level of HSK Elementary Grade C (Level 3)

• In order to meet the language requirements for their specific course, candidates with no previous knowledge of Chinese are required to take a foundation course in the Chinese language at the XMU Overseas Education College, XMU, and pass the appropriate HSK test held in April, June and December each year before starting their course.

5. English Proficiency for programmes taught in English: TOEFL or IELTS with a minimum requirement of 550 points or above for TOEFL (80 points or above for New TOEFL), grade 5.5 or above for IELTS, or on presentation of a certificate from some other approved test of English proficiency. Native English speakers are exempt from this requirement.

IV. Application documents: ( Two set of application documents which are completed correctly and truthfully are needed if apply both the two scholarship)

1. XMU Scholarship: Application Form for International Students XMU, Application Form for Xiamen University Scholarship, down-loadable from http://admissions.xmu.edu.cn, completed in Chinese or English.

2. Chinese Government Scholarship: Application Form for Chinese Government Scholarship, down-loadable from http://www.csc.edu.cn , in one original and one photocopy, completed in Chinese or in English.

3. Notarised photocopy of current highest diploma. Currently-enrolled students should provide a certificate of student status. Diploma documents in languages other than Chinese or English must have Chinese or English translations attached.

4. Certified copy of academic transcript or mark sheet for undergraduate or postgraduate studies as appropriate.

5. Appropriate HSK certificate or English Proficiency Test certificate.

6. A study or research plan of at least 800 words written in Chinese or English.

7. Two original academic references from either professors or associate professors, written in Chinese or English. (Recommendation letter from supervisors of Xiamen University will be given prior consideration)

8. Photocopy of Foreigner Physical Examination Form , down-loadable from http://www.csc.edu.cn , completed in English. The medical examination must cover all the items listed in the form .

9. Photocopy of a valid foreign passport.

V. How to apply?

Application deadline for Chinese Government Scholarship: May 15 th , 2008

Application deadline for Xiamen University Scholarship : July 15th, 2008

The full set of completed application documents should be mailed to the admissions office of Xiamen University before the deadline, as evidenced by postal franking.

Address: Admissions Office of Xiamen University

Xiamen University, 361005 Fujian Province, P.R. China

Tel: +86 592 218 4792

Fax: +86 592 218 0256

Email: admissions@xmu.edu.cn

VI. Approval and notification

Prospectus students can apply for both Chinese Government Scholarship and Xiamen University. The admissions office is responsible for reviewing the application materials.

The Chinese Government Scholarship awardees will be notified before the mid of June ， 2008.

The Xiamen University Scholarship awardees will be notified before the mid of August, 2008

Attachments

Application Form for International Students XMU

Application Form for Xiamen University Scholarship

Application Form for Chinese Government Scholarship

Foreigner Physical Examination Form

In order to increase mutual understanding and friendship between the Chinese people and the peoples of the world, and develop bilateral exchanges and cooperation, the Chinese government provides a series of scholarship programmes to support overseas students and scholars undertaking advanced study and research in Chinese institutions of higher learning and research institutes.

These scholarship programmes include the Great Wall Scholarship, the Scholarship for Excellent Overseas Students, the Scholarship for HSK Winners, the Short-term Advanced Study Programme for Foreign Teachers of Chinese Language and the Research Programme for Chinese Culture.

Xiamen University welcomes students with China scholarship. Such students should contact the University at the appropriate time, and apply directly to the departments, institutes or schools dealing with overseas study affairs in their home country, or the Chinese Embassy or consulate general. For more detailed information go to:

Address:A3 Building2,No.9 Chegongzhuang Street,Beijing 100044,P.R.China

Postcode:100044

Tel:+86 10 88393619 66093916-3926

Fax:+86 10 66093915

E-mail: laihua@csc.edu.cn

网址：http://www.csc.edu.cn

Source: http://admissions.xmu.edu.cn/website.aspx?language=en&website_id=24

Fast Reading Skill

2008-06-29T01:17:00.002+07:00

By Kang Bull

Fast reading skill is one of learning elements. If you a teacher, you should have the correct tips on how to make your pupil enjoy their reading materials and give them ability to read fast. Fast reading is very important to the pupil, with it they can get more information and subject capability through their short learning time. On the other hand, Fast reading skil gives more valuable matters in order to get and catch a lot of subject material on school. It has right affective side to student, and brings them more chances to finish their learning on time.

There are many ways how to be a fast reader. I may give some tips an explanation on it: When read, don’t busy your self with the order of alphabets on the words. just read the word not the alphabets. It is called block read tip. Word by word, not the alphabet. With this tips you should able to read the sentence without knowing all alphabets of it, ya, just read like reading your short massaging service (SMS). "i lek u bceus u re vyr btufll" can you read the example before? Just with this tips, you must able to read five times than usual. I will shear other tips next time.

Assistive Technology for Students with Mild Disabilities

2008-06-18T14:40:00.001+07:00

Author: Behrmann, Michael M.

Technology is bursting into the classroom at all levels, as a tool for teachers to develop, monitor, and provide instructions, and for students to access and engage in learning. P.L. 100-407, The Technology-Related Assistance for Individuals with Disabilities Act of 1988 (Tech Act) was designed to enhance the availability and quality of assistive technology (AT) devices and services to all individuals and their families throughout the United States.

WHAT ARE ASSISTIVE TECHNOLOGY (AT) DEVICES?
The Tech Act defines AT devices as any item, piece of equipment, or product system (whether acquired off the shelf, modified, or customized) that is used to increase, maintain, or improve functional capabilities of individuals with disabilities. AT devices may be categorized as high technology and low technology. Many low-tech devices can be purchased at a hardware store, selected from a catalog, or fabricated using tools and materials found in home workshops (Franklin, 1991). Examples might be note-taking cassette recorders, pencil grips, NCR paper/copy machine, simple switches, head pointers, picture boards, taped instructions, or workbooks. High-tech devices frequently incorporate some type of computer chip, such as a hand-held calculator or a "talking clock." Examples might be optical character recognition (OCR) calculators, word processors with spelling and grammar checking, word prediction, voice recognition, speech synthesizers, augmentative communication devices, alternative keyboards, or instructional software.

HOW CAN AT BE APPLIED IN INSTRUCTION?
Lahm and Morrissette (1994) outlined seven areas of instruction where AT could assist students with mild disabilities. These areas include organization, note taking, writing assistance, productivity, access to reference materials, cognitive assistance, and materials modification. A number of approaches are available to assist students with mild disabilities in these areas of instruction.

ORGANIZATION: Low-tech solutions include teaching students to organize their thoughts or work using flow charting, task analysis, webbing or networking ideas, and outlining. These strategies can be accomplished using graphic organizers to visually assist students in developing and structuring ideas. A high-tech solution might be the outline function of word processing software, which lets students set out major ideas or topics and then add subcategories of information.

NOTE TAKING: A simple approach is for the teacher to provide copies of structured outlines for students to use in filling in information. A high-tech approach might include optical character recognition, which is software that can transform typewritten material into computer-readable text using a scanner.

A teacher's typewritten notes can be duplicated using either NCR paper (carbonless copies) or a copy machine. A slightly more high-tech method is to use microcassette recorders. Or, notes can be read by a voice synthesizer, allowing students with reading difficulty to review the notes much the same as reviewing a tape recording. Recorders are beneficial for students with auditory receptive strength, but they may be less useful for those needing visual input. Videotaping class sessions may be helpful for visual learners who pick up on images or body language, or for students who are unable to attend class for extended periods of time.

Laptop or notebook computers can provide high-tech note taking for many students with disabilities. An inexpensive alternative to a full-function portable computer is the portable keyboard. The limitations of these keyboards are in formatting information and a screen display limited to four lines of text.

WRITING ASSISTANCE: Word processing may be the most important application of assistive technology for students with mild disabilities. Many of these students have been identified as needing assistance in the language arts, specifically in writing. Computers and word processing software enable students to put ideas on paper without the barriers imposed by paper and pencil. Writing barriers for students with mild disabilities include mechanics: spelling, grammar and punctuation errors; process: generating ideas, organizing, drafting, editing, and revising; and motivation: clarity and neatness of final copy, reading ability, and interest in writing.

Grammar/spellcheckers, dictionaries, and thesaurus programs assist in the mechanics of writing. Macros, a feature that allows keystrokes to be recorded in a file that can be used over and over, also assist in mechanics. Macros can be used for spelling difficult text, for repetitive strings of words, or for formatting paragraphs and pages. Macros also save time for students who have difficulty with either the cognitive or motor (keyboarding) requirements of writing. Word prediction is assistive software that functions similarly to macros. If a student has difficulty with word recall or spelling and cannot easily use the dictionary or thesaurus feature, then word prediction software offers several choices of words that can be selected.

Teachers can use the editing capabilities of the word processor during the writing process, making electronic suggestions on the student's disk. If the computer is on a network, students can read each other's work and make comments for revision. Painter (1994) indicated that peer feedback was an effective way to assist students in generating and revising text. Computer editing also reduces or eliminates problems such as multiple erasures, torn papers, poor handwriting, and the need to constantly rewrite text that needs only minor modifications. The final copy is neat and legible.

Motivation is often increased through the desktop-publishing and multimedia capabilities of newer computers. A variety of fonts and styles are available, allowing students to customize their writing and highlight important features. Graphic images, drawings, and even video and audio can be added to the project to provide interest or highlight ideas. Multimedia often gives the student the means and the motivation to generate new and more complex ideas.

PRODUCTIVITY: Assistive productivity tools can be hardware-based, software-based, or both. Calculators, for example, can be the credit-card type or software based, which can be popped up and used during word processing. Spreadsheets, databases, and graphics software also offer productivity tools, enabling students to work on math or other subjects that may require calculating, categorizing, grouping, and predicting events. Productivity tools also can be found in small, portable devices called personal digital assistants (PDAs). Newer PDAs can be used as notetaking devices via a small keyboard or graphics-based pen input. Some PDAs can translate words printed with the pen input device to computer-readable text, which can then be edited with the word processor and transmitted to a full function computer.

ACCESS TO REFERENCE MATERIALS: Many students with mild disabilities have difficulty gathering and synthesizing information for their academic work. In this arena, telecommunications and multimedia are providing new learning tools for the students.

A computer and a modem can transport students beyond their physical environment to access electronic information. This is particularly appropriate for individuals who are easily distracted when going to new and busy environments such as the library. Telecommunications networks offer access to the information superhighway. Students can establish "CompuPals" with other students, which often motivates them to generate more text and thus gain more experience in writing. Students can also access electronic encyclopedias, library references, and online publications. However, these experiences should be structured, because the information highway is complex and it is easy to get distracted or lost as opportunities are explored.

Multimedia-based tools are another way in which information can be made accessible to students. Multimedia's use of text, speech, graphics, pictures, audio, and video in reference-based software is especially effective in meeting the heterogeneous learning needs of students with mild disabilities.

COGNITIVE ASSISTANCE: A vast array of application program software is available for instructing students through tutorials, drill and practice, problem-solving, and simulations. Many of the assistive technologies described previously can be combined with instructional programs to develop and improve cognitive and problem-solving skills.

Multimedia CD-ROM-based application programs offer another tool for assisted reading. Similar to talking word processors, CD-based books include high-interest stories that use the power of multimedia to motivate students to read. These books read each page of the story, highlighting the words as they are read. Additional clicks of the mouse result in pronunciation of syllables and a definition of the word. When the student clicks on a picture, a label appears. A verbal pronunciation of the label is offered when the student clicks the mouse again. These books are available in both English and Spanish, so students can read in their native language while being exposed to a second language.

MATERIALS MODIFICATION: Special educators are familiar with the need to create instructional materials or customize materials to meet the varied needs of students with disabilities. Today there are powerful multimedia authoring and presentation tools that educators can use to develop and modify computer-based instructional materials for students with mild disabilities, providing a learning tool that these students can access and use to balance their weak areas of learning with their strong areas.

Authoring software allows teachers and students to develop instructional software that can incorporate video, pictures, animation, and text into hypermedia-based instruction. Multimedia authoring software is very easy to learn and use. In fact, authoring software packages are even available for young children. For example, if the objective is to teach map reading, an image of a local map can be scanned in and specific locations can be made into buttons that the students can click on, causing a short video clip playing of the familiar location. A set of questions might be asked using both text and synthesized speech to have students give directions on how to get the location shown on the video. Students could then write directions (or draw their own map). Digitized pictures of landmarks could also be incorporated into the directions. These directions, along with the images, could then be printed for use in completing the assignment. Without the ability to author and incorporate multimedia easily into instructional software, such computer-based training would be impossible because of the need to incorporate the shared learning concepts inherent in local environments into the assisted-learning process. Such instruction can make learning more efficient and certainly more real for students for whom abstract learning and generalization may be difficult.

REFERENCES
Franklin, K.S. (1991). Supported employment and assistive technology--A powerful partnership. In S.L. Griffin & W.G. Revell (Eds.), Rehabilitation counselor desktop guide to supported employment. Richmond, VA : Virginia Commonwealth University Rehabilitation Research and Training Center on Supported Employment.

Lahm, E., & Morrissette, S. (1994, April). Zap 'em with assistive technology. Paper presented at the annual meeting of The Council for Exceptional Children, Denver, CO.

Painter, D.D. (1994). A study to determine the effectiveness of computer-based process writing with learning disabled students under two conditions of instruction: Peer collaborative process model and nonpeer collaborative process model. Unpublished doctoral dissertation, George Mason University, Fairfax, VA.

ADDITIONAL RESOURCES

Asen, S. (1994). Teaching and learning with technology. Alexandria, VA : Association for Supervision and Curriculum Development.

Johnson, L.J., Pugach, M.C., & Devlin S. (1990). Professional collaboration. TEACHING Exceptional Children, 22, 9-11.

U.S. Congress, Office of Technology Assessment. (1988). Power on! New tools for teaching and learning (OTA-SET-379). Washington, DC: U.S. Government Printing Office.

ELECTRONIC RESOURCES
Digests published by the ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education are available for downloading or online reading on the AskERIC Virtual Library .

The following Internet sites provide additional information on assistive technology for students with disabilities:

Gopher sites: gopher sjuvm.stjohns.edu

St. John's University

Electronic Rehabilitation Resource Center

gopher hawking.u.washington.edu

University of Washington

-----
From Behrmann, M. (1994). Assistive technology for students with mild disabilities. "Intervention in School and Clinic," 30(2), 70-83. Adapted by permission.

Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education Reston VA

Teaching Artistically Able Students with Exceptionalities

2008-06-18T14:28:00.002+07:00

Author: Johnson, Robin

Creating differentiated art curricula to accommodate artistically talented students' individual needs may enhance student performance and program outcomes. This Digest discusses (1) individual education plans for artistically able students with exceptionalities, (2) subgroups of students with dual exceptionalities, (3) methods of teaching students with dual exceptionalities, and (4) methods of teaching students with specific disabilities.

INDIVIDUALIZED EDUCATION PROGRAMS (IEPs).
Since the passage of The Education for All Handicapped Children Act in 1975 and the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA) in 1990, the landscape of art education has changed dramatically. Students with exceptional educational needs (EEN) are mainstreamed with their peers to fulfill the requirement that they be "educated in their least restrictive environment (LRE)" (Individuals with Disabilities Education Act of 1997). Although students with EEN are frequently supported in academic subjects by special instructors or instructional assistants, this often is not the case in areas considered less academic, such as art, music, technology, and physical education. These students have adaptations written into their IEPs by teams that include professionals, social workers, and parents, but rarely art teachers. Because of this, IEPs for mainstreamed students with EEN are often inappropriate in an art education context. Art teachers are finding that specialized adaptations for students with EEN beyond those constructed by regular classroom teachers and special education teachers are necessary (Hillert 1997).

Also, art teachers must work with students of all ability levels with little classroom support. In addition to frequently being left out of the IEP development process, they often are unaware of the variety of disabilities affecting their students. To individualize their curricula to accommodate the varying needs, interests, and abilities of special populations in their classes, art teachers need to request copies of any learning modifications that may be called for by a student's IEP (Yong and McIntyre 1992). There are many ways to describe and categorize characteristics of students with talent in the visual arts (Clark and Zimmerman 1992). An important challenge that many art teachers face is differentiating curricula for students who simultaneously demonstrate artistic talent and exceptionalities in other areas. For these students, artistic expression may be a means of demonstrating their capabilities.

SUBGROUPS OF STUDENTS WITH DUAL EXCEPTIONALITIES.
Students with dual exceptionalities have both high ability and learning disabilities. Generally, they can be divided into three subgroups. The first subgroup includes students not identified as having an EEN (Beckley 1998). These students may use their abilities to compensate for disabilities that do not surface in a regular classroom. An art teacher often may discover that a student needs to be referred for assessment.

The second subgroup of students has been identified as having an EEN, but the strengths of their academic and art abilities may go unrecognized (Beckley 1998). These students often face problems in the art room that revolve around disabilities and low self-image. Students with dual exceptionalities often blame themselves for their failures and do not recognize their successes. A challenge to all teachers is to emphasize student success and reinforce it in concrete ways (Vaidya 1993).

The third subgroup of students with dual exceptionalities includes those who demonstrate ability, yet have difficulty performing tasks required in school. This becomes evident in art classes when students have difficulty completing work or maintaining a level of quality in their work consistent with their art abilities. Students need assistance in their areas of weakness, but they also need to recognize and develop their gifts (Beckley 1998). In working with all students who have potential or exhibit art talent, it is as important to consider their working processes as well as their final products and outcomes (Clark and Zimmerman 1992). Note that these groups are not discrete and may overlap.

METHODS OF TEACHING STUDENTS WITH DUAL EXCEPTIONALITIES.
Listed below are several modifications that easily can be incorporated into a curriculum for artistically able students with EEN without disrupting their need for differentiation. The amount of work or size of art projects may be altered:

* Encourage students to complete assignments in small, manageable chunks. Students beginning extensive art projects may need help organizing an individual plan for completing the project.

* If a student easily burns out, recommend that he or she begin with smaller projects and gradually work toward larger ones. In the case of research, for example, students could begin by looking at artists' works for images with which they feel some connection. They could later incorporate information about the artist, the time period during which the art was produced, and media used by the artist, eventually completing a written assignment.

The amount of time given to complete a project may be adjusted:

* Be alert for obsessive behavior. Gifted and talented children often obsess over tasks and have difficulty completing tasks on time (Clark and Zimmerman 1992). If a student has begun work on a large painting and is struggling to finish, have him or her take a day off and try some new materials or begin another project different from the original one.

* Set flexible time schedules. Make art assignments due over the course of several days or even weeks. Provide a range of time during which an assignment may be turned in.

* Encourage steady work habits. Students may keep a log of the work they accomplished in an art period or the teacher may consult with students each day to make sure they are on task.

* Be aware of procrastination. Students with exceptional ability may spend a great deal of time daydreaming (Willard-Holt 1999). If they are thinking about what to do for their next project, take time to discuss their plans and use brainstorming techniques to help them discover some possibilities. They also can look at other artists' works or do thumbnail sketches to help them move their project forward.

Methods used by a teacher to deliver information may be modified:

* Teachers can use multimedia demonstrations that the students can easily access. To increase student independence, teachers can demonstrate complicated techniques such as cutting wood blocks for printmaking.

* Use verbal instructions. For example, when demonstrating how to hand-build pottery, explain the process step by step or ask the student to explain the process to clarify his or her understanding.

* Offer written information along with illustrations. Illustrations of a pottery demonstration accompanied by written directions may be useful for students who have difficulty retaining information.

Additional methods can be used by students to complete assignments:

* Make assignments open-ended so that students have opportunities to use higher level thinking skills. For example, when assigning a personally expressive self-portrait, allow students to choose the media they use to complete the assignment.

* Offer options, if not for materials, then for subject matter or style, such as allowing students to choose a topic for a critique about a specific style of art. For example, if a student chooses to critique abstract art, he or she can do so orally, in writing, or by creating artwork that demonstrates individual reactions to abstract art.

METHODS OF TEACHING STUDENTS WITH SPECIFIC DISABILITIES.
Below are a few additional suggestions for teaching artistically able students with specific disabilities:
Students with emotional disabilities may respond best to creating artwork that is self-expressive, such as expressionistic or surrealistic images. Teachers should focus on positive experiences, reassure students, and provide them with firm, consistent guidelines and opportunities for interaction with other students.

Students with learning disabilities may need information explained in several ways. Depending on the nature of the specific disability, the student may benefit from oral instruction, written instruction, or demonstration. Students should reiterate art lesson expectations to the teachers to be sure communication is clear.

Students with physical disabilities should be provided materials that allow for maximum independence. The physical environment of the classroom or materials may need to be adapted for their individual needs. Teachers should help students verbalize difficulties they are encountering in order to help them solve art room problems.

Students with hearing impairments should be positioned in the classroom so they can get the teacher's attention and read classmates' facial expressions. Directions should be provided in writing and through demonstration. These students should be involved in group activities such as collaborative art making, critiques, and historical studies of art.

Students with visual impairments require more assistance in visual arts than many of their peers. In providing an art curriculum for these students, consider using the other senses, providing three-dimensional models, focusing on tactile materials, and involving students in art critiques and discussions. Teachers should show students where materials are located and inform students if the room has been rearranged (Rodriguez 1984).

In conclusion, in every case the goal should be student success. Focusing on students' abilities and minimizing their disabilities enhances their own learning as well as the creative atmosphere of the entire art classroom.

REFERENCES AND ERIC RESOURCES.
The following list of resources includes references used to prepare this Digest. The items followed by an ED number are available in microfiche, paper, or electronic full text from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS). For information about prices, contact EDRS, 7420 Fullerton Road, Suite 110, Springfield, Virginia 22152-2852; World Wide Web ; telephone numbers are (703) 440-1400 and (800) 443-3742. Entries followed by an EJ number, annotated monthly in CURRENT INDEX TO JOURNALS IN EDUCATION (CIJE), are not available through EDRS. However, they can be located in the journal section of larger libraries by using the bibliographic information provided, requested through Interlibrary Loan, or ordered from commercial reprint services.
Beckley, Dawn. GIFTED AND LEARNING DISABLED: TWICE EXCEPTIONAL STUDENTS. Storrs, CT: University of Connecticut National Research Center on the Gifted and Talented, 1998. ED 424 711.

Clark, Gilbert A., and Enid Zimmerman. TRANSLATIONS: FROM THEORY TO PRACTICE 2: 1-6. Reston, VA: National Art Education Association.

Davis, Gary A., and Sylvia B. Rimm. EDUCATION OF THE GIFTED AND TALENTED. Boston Heights, MA: Allyn and Bacon, 1994.

EDUCATION FOR ALL HANDICAPPED CHILDREN ACT OF 1975, P.L. 94-142.

Hillert, Mark S. THE PROBLEMATIC NATURE OF ART TEACHERS' EFFORTS TO ADAPT INSTRUCTION FOR SPECIAL NEEDS STUDENTS. Ph.D. diss., St. Norbert College, 1997. ED 446 405.

INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT AMENDMENTS OF 1997, P.L. 105-17.

INDIVIDUALS WITH DISABILITIES EDUCATION ACT OF 1990, P.L. 101 476.

Rodriguez, Susan. THE SPECIAL ARTIST'S HANDBOOK: ART ACTIVITIES AND ADAPTIVE AIDS FOR HANDICAPPED STUDENTS. Palo Alto, CA: Dale Seymour, 1984. ED 398 156.

Vaidya, Sheila R. "Gifted Children With Learning Disabilities: Theoretical Implications and Instructional Challenge." EDUCATION 113 (Summer 1993): 568-734.

Waldron, Karen A. and Others. "Learning Disabilities and Giftedness: Identification Based on Self-Concept, Behavior, and Academic Patterns." JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES 20 (Aug Sep 1987): 422 27, 432. EJ 359 435.

Willard-Holt, Colleen. DUAL EXCEPTIONALITIES. ERIC Digest. Reston, VA: ERIC Clearinghouse for Disabilities and Gifted Education, 1999. ED 430 344.

Yong, Fung L. and John D. McIntyre. "A Comparative Study of the Learning Style Preferences of Students with Learning Disabilities and Students Who Are Gifted." JOURNAL OF LEARNING DISABILITIES 25 (February 1992): 124-32. EJ 442 934.

Source: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education Bloomington IN

Communicative Language Teaching

2008-06-18T14:23:00.002+07:00

Communicative Language Teaching: An Introduction and Sample Activities
Author: Galloway, Ann

This digest will take a look at the communicative approach to the teaching of foreign languages. It is intended as an introduction to the communicative approach for teachers and teachers-in-training who want to provide opportunities in the classroom for their students to engage in real-life communication in the target language. Questions to be dealt with include what the communicative approach is, where it came from, and how teachers' and students' roles differ from the roles they play in other teaching approaches. Examples of exercises that can be used with a communicative approach are described, and sources of appropriate materials are provided.

WHERE DOES COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING COME FROM?
Its origins are many, insofar as one teaching methodology tends to influence the next. The communicative approach could be said to be the product of educators and linguists who had grown dissatisfied with the audiolingual and grammar-translation methods of foreign language instruction. They felt that students were not learning enough realistic, whole language. They did not know how to communicate using appropriate social language, gestures, or expressions; in brief, they were at a loss to communicate in the culture of the language studied. Interest in and development of communicative-style teaching mushroomed in the 1970s; authentic language use and classroom exchanges where students engaged in real communication with one another became quite popular.

In the intervening years, the communicative approach has been adapted to the elementary, middle, secondary, and post-secondary levels, and the underlying philosophy has spawned different teaching methods known under a variety of names, including notional-functional, teaching for proficiency, proficiency-based instruction, and communicative language teaching.

WHAT IS COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING?
Communicative language teaching makes use of real-life situations that necessitate communication. The teacher sets up a situation that students are likely to encounter in real life. Unlike the audiolingual method of language teaching, which relies on repetition and drills, the communicative approach can leave students in suspense as to the outcome of a class exercise, which will vary according to their reactions and responses. The real-life simulations change from day to day. Students' motivation to learn comes from their desire to communicate in meaningful ways about meaningful topics.

Margie S. Berns, an expert in the field of communicative language teaching, writes in explaining Firth's view that "language is interaction; it is interpersonal activity and has a clear relationship with society. In this light, language study has to look at the use (function) of language in context, both its linguistic context (what is uttered before and after a given piece of discourse) and its social, or situational, context (who is speaking, what their social roles are, why they have come together to speak)" (Berns, 1984, p. 5).

WHAT ARE SOME EXAMPLES OF COMMUNICATIVE EXERCISES?
In a communicative classroom for beginners, the teacher might begin by passing out cards, each with a different name printed on it. The teacher then proceeds to model an exchange of introductions in the target language: "Guten Tag. Wie heissen Sie?" Reply: "Ich heisse Wolfie," for example. Using a combination of the target language and gestures, the teacher conveys the task at hand, and gets the students to introduce themselves and ask their classmates for information. They are responding in German to a question in German. They do not know the answers beforehand, as they are each holding cards with their new identities written on them; hence, there is an authentic exchange of information.

Later during the class, as a reinforcement listening exercise, the students might hear a recorded exchange between two German freshmen meeting each other for the first time at the gymnasium doors. Then the teacher might explain, in English, the differences among German greetings in various social situations. Finally, the teacher will explain some of the grammar points and structures used.

The following exercise is taken from a 1987 workshop on communicative foreign language teaching, given for Delaware language teachers by Karen Willetts and Lynn Thompson of the Center for Applied Linguistics. The exercise, called "Eavesdropping," is aimed at advanced students.

"Instructions to students." Listen to a conversation somewhere in a public place and be prepared to answer, in the target language, some general questions about what was said.

1. Who was talking?

2. About how old were they?

3. Where were they when you eavesdropped?

4. What were they talking about?

5. What did they say?

6. Did they become aware that you were listening to them?

The exercise puts students in a real-world listening situation where they must report information overheard. Most likely they have an opinion of the topic, and a class discussion could follow, in the target language, about their experiences and viewpoints.

Communicative exercises such as this motivate the students by treating topics of their choice, at an appropriately challenging level.

Another exercise taken from the same source is for beginning students of Spanish. In "Listening for the Gist," students are placed in an everyday situation where they must listen to an authentic text.

"Objective." Students listen to a passage to get general understanding of the topic or message.

"Directions." Have students listen to the following announcement to decide what the speaker is promoting.

"Passage." "Situacion ideal...Servicio de transporte al Aeropuerto Internacional...Cuarenta y dos habitaciones de lujo, con aire acondicionado...Elegante restaurante...de fama internacional."

(The announcement can be read by the teacher or played on tape.) Then ask students to circle the letter of the most appropriate answer on their copy, which consists of the following multiple-choice options:

a. a taxi service

b. a hotel

c. an airport

d. a restaurant

(Source: Adapted from Ontario Assessment Instrument Pool, 1980, Item No. 13019)

Gunter Gerngross, an English teacher in Austria, gives an example of how he makes his lessons more communicative. He cites a widely used textbook that shows English children having a pet show. "Even when learners act out this scene creatively and enthusiastically, they do not reach the depth of involvement that is almost tangible when they act out a short text that presents a family conflict revolving round the question of whether the children should be allowed to have a pet or not" (Gerngross & Puchta, 1984, p. 92). He continues to say that the communicative approach "puts great emphasis on listening, which implies an active will to try to understand others. [This is] one of the hardest tasks to achieve because the children are used to listening to the teacher but not to their peers. There are no quick, set recipes.

That the teacher be a patient listener is the basic requirement" (p. 98).

The observation by Gerngross on the role of the teacher as one of listener rather than speaker brings up several points to be discussed in the next portion of this digest.

HOW DO THE ROLES OF THE TEACHER AND STUDENT CHANGE IN COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING?
Teachers in communicative classrooms will find themselves talking less and listening more--becoming active facilitators of their students' learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986). The teacher sets up the exercise, but because the students' performance is the goal, the teacher must step back and observe, sometimes acting as referee or monitor. A classroom during a communicative activity is far from quiet, however. The students do most of the speaking, and frequently the scene of a classroom during a communicative exercise is active, with students leaving their seats to complete a task.

Because of the increased responsibility to participate, students may find they gain confidence in using the target language in general. Students are more responsible managers of their own learning (Larsen-Freeman, 1986).

WHERE CAN I LEARN MORE ABOUT COMMUNICATIVE TEACHING?
All of the following documents on communicative language teaching are in the ERIC database. They can be read on microfiche at any library housing an ERIC collection or purchased in microfiche or paper copy from the ERIC Document Reproduction Service (EDRS), 7420 Fullerton Road, Suite 110, Springfield, VA 22153-2852 (1-800-443-3742).

REFERENCES
Ben-Barka, A. C. [1982]. "In search of a language teaching framework: An adaptation of a communicative approach to functional practice." (EDRS No. ED 239 507, 26 pages)

Das, B. K. (Ed.) (1984). "Communicative language teaching." Selected papers from the RELC seminar (Singapore). "Anthology Series 14." (EDRS No. ED 266 661, 234 pages)

Littlewood, W. T. (1983). "Communicative approach to language teaching methodology (CLCS Occasional Paper No. 7)." Dublin: Dublin University, Trinity College, Centre for Language and Communication Studies. (EDRS No. ED 235 690, 23 pages)

Pattison, P. (1987). "The communicative approach and classroom realities." (EDRS No. ED 288 407, 17 pages)

Riley, P. (1982). "Topics in communicative methodology: Including a preliminary and selective bibliography on the communicative approach." (EDRS No. ED 231 213, 31 pages)

Savignon, S. J., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.). (1983). "Communicative language teaching: Where are we going? Studies in Language Learning," 4(2). (EDRS No. ED 278 226, 210 pages)

Sheils, J. (1986). "Implications of the communicative approach for the role of the teacher." (EDRS No. ED 268 831, 7 pages)

Swain, M., & Canale, M. (1982). "The role of grammar in a communicative approach to second language teaching and testing." (EDRS No. ED 221 026, 8 pages) (not available separately; available from EDRS as part of ED 221 023, 138 pages)

Willems, G., & Riley, P. (Eds.). (1984). "Communicative foreign language teaching and the training of foreign language teachers." (EDRS No. ED 273 102, 219 pages)

Readers may also wish to consult the following journal articles for additional information on communicative language teaching.

Clark, J. L. (1987). Classroom assessment in a communicative approach. "British Journal of Language Teaching," 25(1), 9-19.

Dolle, D., & Willems, G. M. (1984). The communicative approach to foreign language teaching: The teacher's case. "European Journal of Teacher Education," 7(2), 145-54.

Morrow, K., & Schocker, M. (1987). Using texts in a communicative approach. "ELT Journal," 41(4), 248-56.

Oxford, R. L., et al. (1989). Language learning strategies, the communicative approach, and their classroom implications. "Foreign Language Annals," 22(1), 29-39.

Pica, T. P. (1988). Communicative language teaching: An aid to second language acquisition? Some insights from classroom research. "English Quarterly," 21(2), 70-80.

Rosenthal, A. S., & Sloane, R. A. (1987). A communicative approach to foreign language instruction: The UMBC project. "Foreign Language Annals," 20(3), 245-53.

Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (1). "ELT Journal," 39(1), 2-12.

Swan, M. (1985). A critical look at the communicative approach (2). "ELT Journal," 39(2), 76-87.

Terrell, T. D. (1991). The role of grammar instruction in a communicative approach. "Modern Language Journal," 75(1), 52-63.

REFERENCES AND RESOURCES

Berns, M. S. (1984). Functional approaches to language and language teaching: Another look. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (Eds.), "Initiatives in communicative language teaching. A book of readings" (pp. 3-21). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Gerngross, G., & Puchta, H. (1984). Beyond notions and functions: Language teaching or the art of letting go. In S. Savignon & M. S. Berns (Eds.), "Initiatives in communicative language teaching. A book of readings" (pp. 89-107). Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.

Larsen-Freeman, D. (1986). "Techniques and principles in language teaching." Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Littlewood, W. (1981). "Language teaching. An introduction." Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Savignon, S., & Berns, M. S. (Eds.). (1984). "Initiatives in communicative language teaching." Reading, MA: Addison-Wesley.
Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Languages and Linguistics Washington DC

Nurse Scholarship Program: Rural and Remote Undergraduate Scheme

2008-06-16T03:32:00.000+07:00

Scholarships will be available for the start of the 2009 academic year for people living and working in remote and rural Australia wishing to become a Registered/Division 1 nurse.

For applicants studying in a full time capacity, the scheme provides financial assistance of $10,000 each year, to a potential maximum of $30,000 per applicant, during their nursing studies. There are 110 scholarships available and of these at least 10 are designated for awarding to Aboriginal or Torres Strait Islander applicants.

For enrolled nurses studying in a part time capacity and upgrading their qualifications to the level of a Registered/Division 1 Nurse, the scheme provides financial assistance of $5,000 each year, to a potential maximum of $25,000 per applicant, during their nursing studies. There are 20 scholarships available for enrolled nurses studying part time towards their Registered/Divsion 1 nursing qualification.

Information regarding this Scheme and application packs are available from the RCNA website.

If you have any further enquiries, please contact RCNA via phone 1800 117 262 or email.

Value: up to $10,000pa
Closing Date: Friday, 11th July 2008

Japan/World Bank Graduate Scholarship Program (JJ/WBGSP)

2008-06-16T03:26:00.001+07:00

Applicants admitted to the Program in Economic and Public Policy Management are eligible for scholarships provided by the Joint Japan/World Bank Graduate Scholarship Program (JJ/WBGSP) of the World Bank and the Japan-IDB Scholarship Program of the Inter-American Development Bank provided that they meet the specific requirements of each program as described below.

Fifteen scholarships are provided by the JJ/WBGSP for this purpose. To be eligible, a candidate must be a national of a World Bank member country that is currently eligible to borrow from the Bank. In addition, Executive Directors, their alternates, and staff of the World Bank Group,including consultants, as well as their close relatives, are excluded from consideration.

Candidates should also be aware that, according to the general selection criteria of the World Bank,“while applicants from allWorld Bank member countries may apply for a JJ/WBGSP scholarships, the program gives priority to World Bank member countries currently eligible to borrow,especially low and middle-income countries.The program also gives priority to: women; applicants with few other resources and from lower social and economic classes;applicants who have not had previous opportunities for graduate study outside their home country; and applicants who do not already hold a graduate degree from an industrialized country” (for further information, see http://www.worldbank.org/wbi).

In addition to these fifteen scholarships, the Japan-IDB Scholarship Program of the Inter-American Development Bank offers no less than two scholarships to applicants from countries in Latin America and the Caribbean. Applicants from this region will be advised on their options at the proper time (see more at ttp://www.iadb.org/int/eng/japan_scholarship.htm).

The scholarships benefits cover:

* economy class travel between the home country and Tsukuba, plus a travel allowance of US$ 500 for each one-way trip
* tuition and other Program fees
* a monthly stipend for subsistence needs roughly equivalent to that given by the scholarships program of the Ministry of Education, Culture, Sports, Science and Technology of Japan (currently 170,000 yen monthly)
* medical insurance costs

These benefits cover only the scholarship recipient and are not extendable to family members. Other costs not covered by the scholarship:

* additional travel during the course of the Program
* expenses related to research,supplementary educational materials,or participation in workshops,seminars, or internships while at the University of Tsukuba.

The maximum period of funding is two years.

Recipients of JJ/WBGSP scholarships will not be eligible for employment with the World Bank for a period of three years after the completion of the Program. Those obtaining a scholarship from the Japan-IDB Scholarship Program of the Inter-American Development Bank are required to return to their native country for at least two years upon completion of their degree. As in the case of the World Bank, Executive Directors, staff and their close relatives are excluded from consideration.

PhD Opportunities in Wireless and Mobile Communications

2008-06-16T03:16:00.002+07:00

Programme of Research: Research Studentship(s)

Full time PhD studentships in wireless and mobile communications graded 4 in the last RAE, are available for graduates with a good honours degree in engineering, or a relevant subject area, or an equivalent qualification.

A studentship is full-time for three years, and has a value of £9,500 per year plus the possibility of paid demonstrating duties of up to six hours per week. The studentship includes tuition fees to UK/UE nationals, or an equivalent fee contribution to non UK/EU nationals.

A number of research projects are available in the Integrated Communication Research Centre (ICRC)-full details can be found on our web site. These include:

Wireless Mobile Radio at Millimetre Waves Frequencies
Radiowave Propagation
Satellite Communications
Mobile Computing
Mobile Networking

The ICRC was established in 2006 through the convergence of two well-established research units; the Radiowave Propagation & System Design RU and the Mobile Computing, Communications & Computing RU. The main objective of the ICRC is the consolidation of the research work of the two research units and to combine this with extended research themes and capability in the Faculty of Advanced Technology covering the full networking protocol stack – from mobile applications through the network layer stack to broadband wireless communication systems and radio propagation studies. The Centre thus brings together relevant research on wireless communications and mobile computing to form an overall comprehensive framework for research and development in the field. Further information on the Centre can be found on the website http://icrc.research.glam.ac.uk/

Applications are also welcome from those with their own project proposals.
for further details: http://icrc.research.glam.ac.uk/

Developing Social Competence for All Students

2008-06-06T00:09:00.002+07:00

Author: Vincent, Claudia G. - Horner, Robert H. - Sugai, George

Schools are under pressure to create safe, orderly and effective learning environments where students acquire social as well as academic skills that will allow them to succeed in school and beyond. This pressure has emerged from real disciplinary challenges combined with wariness of school violence sensationalized in the media (Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Sugai et al., 2000; Walker, Nishioka, Zeller, Bullis, & Sprague, 2001; Walker & Shinn, 2002). At the same time, teachers, parents, and administrators report more and more time consumed by disciplinary measures intended to correct students' antisocial behaviors (Skiba & Peterson, 2000). Traditional punishment and exclusion may provide a short-lived reprieve from disciplinary problems, but research has shown that in the long term, punishment and exclusion are ineffective and can lead to renewed incidents of disruption and escalating behaviors (Mayer, 1999).

Over the last two decades, school populations have become increasingly diverse. Children sharing the same classroom come from a broad range of cultures, languages, and socioeconomic backgrounds. Schools face the challenge of creating environments that are sensitive to a myriad of individual backgrounds and support all students' social and academic success. They can no longer afford to focus exclusively on delivering academic curricula; they are also responsible for establishing and maintaining socio-cultural microcosms that teach children to negotiate the diverse values and social norms of a pluralistic society. This digest describes the challenges of social skills instruction and provides three strategies to improve all students' social competence. Social skills are crucial for mutually productive interactions and durable interpersonal relationships. Children benefit not only socially, but also academically, when appropriate behaviors increase their access to instructional time. We emphasize the importance of teaching individual social skills within the context of establishing a school-wide culture of social competence.

The success of teachers and administrators in helping students develop social competence depends on their ability to (a) develop a school-wide culture of social competence, (b) infuse the curriculum with situation-specific social skills lessons that target key behaviors, and (c) match the level and intensity of instruction to students' social skills deficits (Gresham, 1998; Sugai & Lewis, in press).

DEVELOPING A SCHOOL-WIDE CULTURE OF SOCIAL COMPETENCE
Schools are complex environments comprising heterogeneous populations and activities. Students, teachers, staff, administrators, and parents often have differing expectations of how a school should function. To establish a school climate acceptable to all, a team representing all members of the school community should be formed and asked to define school-wide behavioral expectations (Lewis & Sugai, 1999). School-wide behavioral expectations typically (a) address the most frequently observed problem behaviors across all school settings, (b) are condensed into three to five short and easy to remember statements, (c) are age appropriate, and (d) are positively stated (e.g., "be respectful" instead of "don't tease") (Sugai & Lewis, in press). Visibly posted throughout the building, school-wide behavioral expectations are intended to publicize the social values shared by all members of the school community and the behaviors representing those values. For instance, a middle school in Oregon developed the following school-wide behavioral expectations: (1) Be Respectful, (2) Be Responsible, (3) Follow Directions, (4) Hands and Feet to Self, and (5) Be There-Be Ready (Taylor-Greene et al., 1997).

Formulating and posting school-wide behavioral expectations alone does not automatically result in improved student behavior. All students need to be taught directly and actively how to perform the behaviors representing the school's social values (Horner, Sugai, Lewis-Palmer & Todd, 2001, Lewis & Sugai, 1999; Sugai & Lewis, in press). A one-day training could be conducted at the beginning of the academic year or at intervals throughout the year to illustrate the school's behavioral expectations through concrete examples in various school settings (Taylor-Greene et al., 1997). For instance, being respectful can mean waiting one's turn in line in the cafeteria or raising one's hand to get the teacher's attention in the classroom.

To encourage students to practice the taught behaviors, students' performance of appropriate behaviors should be reinforced through routine acknowledgments and monitored through ongoing data collection (Taylor-Greene et al., 1997). In comparison to students who receive teacher attention only in the form of reprimands for rule violations, students who know that their socially appropriate behaviors are appreciated by teachers and staff are more likely to repeat those behaviors and encourage their peers to behave appropriately (Sugai & Lewis, in press). Once a behavioral skill becomes functional for a student (i.e., is positively recognized by teachers and peers) the skill is likely to become part of the student's general behavioral repertoire.

SOCIAL SKILLS LESSONS TARGETING KEY BEHAVIORS IN SPECIFIC SITUATIONS
To support the development of a school-wide culture of competence, social skills instruction must be an integral part of the school's curriculum and daily operations (Sugai & Lewis, in press). During any given school day, students encounter a variety of settings, for example, the school bus, hallway, classroom, cafeteria, playground, and gym. Each setting requires specific skills for successful interactions with others sharing the same space.

With mounting pressure to improve students' academic achievements, classrooms have become the focal point for improving student behavior through social skills instruction, thereby ensuring students' access to academic content (Sugai & Lewis, in press). To create a classroom environment where all students can learn, teachers must teach appropriate social skills giving students access to the academic curriculum. Appropriate behaviors, such as raising one's hand to signal for help or sitting still during seat-work help to ensure access to the academic content being delivered. Once students acquire the skills necessary for successful classroom interactions, they will be more likely to generalize their acquired skills to other settings and contribute to the school-wide culture of social competence (Horner et al., 2001; Sugai & Lewis, in press).

Teachers need to respond to a student's inability to perform a social skill exactly as they would to a student's inability to complete an academic task. If students do not know how to solicit teacher attention appropriately, they need to be actively and systematically instructed to signal for help, for example, by raising their hands. Sit
uation-specific social skills instruction should focus on teaching behaviors perceived as functional by students and others with whom they interact. For instance, getting teacher attention must result from raising one's hand, and talking out or leaving one's seat must not result in getting teacher attention. If an inappropriate behavior is made functional for a student by evoking the desired response, teachers inadvertently might encourage the performance of inappropriate behavior. Socially appropriate behaviors in the classroom are likely to decrease the amount of time spent on disciplinary actions and increase students' access to academic content. Situation specific instruction should incorporate a model or description of the appropriate skill, provide students the opportunity to observe and practice the skill, assess the students' ability to perform the skill, provide reinforcement contingent on performing the taught skill, and avoid reinforcing inappropriate behavior (Gresham, 1998; Sugai & Lewis, in press).

MATCHING THE LEVEL AND INTENSITY OF INSTRUCTION TO STUDENTS' NEEDS
Children enter school with varying degrees of social competence. While some students are fluent in social skills and therefore able to interact appropriately with peers and teachers, others might not have learned to perform socially appropriate behaviors and, therefore, are at risk of low academic achievement and developing antisocial lifestyles (Walker et al., 1996). Although variation exists, general research has shown that approximately 80% of a school's student population responds to instruction in school-wide behavioral expectations, and approximately 15% of students need additional instruction in the form of targeted situation-specific lessons. Students who are unresponsive to school-wide and targeted instructions comprise about 5% of a school's population and present the toughest challenge to the daily operations of a school (Horner and Sugai, 2002; Sugai et al., 2000; Walker et al., 1996). Addressing individual students' persistent antisocial behaviors requires a systematic process of determining why a student repeatedly performs the specific behaviors (Sugai et al., 2000).

Functional behavioral assessment offers strategies to identify events and conditions triggering a specific behavior and the functions maintaining the behavior (i.e., get/access or escape/avoid). Direct observations, review of archival data, or interviews with students, their teachers, and/or their parents help to define the circumstances under which the problem behavior occurs. Based on this information, individual behavior support plans focusing on teaching and reinforcing socially appropriate replacement behaviors can be designed and implemented to match individual students' skill deficits (Sugai et al., 2000). To use the technology of functional behavioral assessment effectively and efficiently, schools need to focus on training personnel to conduct functional behavioral assessments and implement the resulting individual behavior support plans.

REFERENCES
Gresham, F.M. (1998). Social skills training: Should we raze, remodel, or rebuild? Behavioral Disorders, 24, 19-25.

Horner, R.H. & Sugai, G. (2002, April). Overview of Positive Behavior Support. Paper presented at the 2002 Convention of the Council for Exceptional Children, New York.

Horner, R.H., Sugai, G., Lewis-Palmer, T., & Todd, A.W. (2001). Teaching school-wide behavioral expectations. Report on Emotional and Behavioral Disorders in Youth, 1(4), 77-79, 93-96.

Lewis, T., & Sugai, G. (1999). Effective behavior support: A systems approach to proactive schoolwide management. Focus on Exceptional Children, 31(6), 1-24.

Mayer, G.R. (1999). Constructive discipline for school personnel. Education and Treatment of Children, 22(1), 36-54.

Skiba, R.J. & Peterson, R.L. (2000). School discipline at a crossroads: From zero tolerance to early response. Exceptional Children, 66(3), 335-356.

Sugai, G., Horner, R.H., Dunlap, G., Hieneman, M., Lewis, T.J., Nelson, C.M., Scott, T., Liaupsin, C., Sailor, W., Turnbull, A.P., Turnbull, H.R., III, Wickham, D., Reuf, M., & Wilcox, B. (2000). Applying positive behavioral support and functional behavioral assessment in schools. Journal of Positive Behavioral Interventions, 2, 131-143.

Sugai, G., & Lewis, T. (in press). Social skills instruction in the classroom. In E.J. Kame'enui & C. Darch (Eds.). Instructional classroom management. (2nd ed.). White Plains, NY: Longman.

Taylor-Greene, S., Brown, D., Nelson, L., Longton, J., Gassman, T., Cohen, J., Swartz, J., Horner, R.H., Sugai, G., & Hall, S. (1997). School-wide behavioral support: Starting the year off right. Journal of Behavioral Education, 7, 99-112.

Walker, H.M., Horner, R.H., Sugai, G., Bullis, M., Sprague, J.R., Bricker, D., & Kaufman, M.J. (1996). Integrated approaches to preventing antisocial behavior patterns among school-age children and youth. Journal of Emotional and Behavioral Disorders, 4, 193-256.

Walker, H.M., Nishioka, V.M., Zeller, R., Bullis, M., & Sprague, J.R. (2001). School-based screening, identification, and service-delivery issues. Report on Emotional & Behavioral Disorders in Youth, 1(3), 51-52, 67-70.

Walker, H.M., & Shinn, M.R. (2002). Structuring school-based interventions to achieve integrated primary, secondary, and tertiary prevention goals for safe and effective schools. In M.R. Shinn, G. Stoner, & H.M. Walker (Eds.), Interventions for academic and behavior problems: Preventive and remedial approaches. National Association of School Psychologists. Silver Spring, MD.

Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Disabilities and Gifted Education Arlington VA. ERIC/OSEP Special Project

How Do Teachers Communicate?

2008-06-06T00:00:00.002+07:00

The last decade has seen a rise in the demand for testing teachers, brought on by a real or perceived decline in student performance, as well as concern over the quality and preparation of people entering the profession. An increased sense of urgency was sounded in recent reports calling for national standards for teachers: the Holmes' Group report, Tomorrow's Teachers (1986); the Carnegie Commission report, A Nation Prepared: Teachers for the 21st Century (1986); and the National Governors' Association report, Time for Results (1986). In response, many states have adopted formal assessment procedures for teachers, almost all of which claim to evaluate communication abilities. However, the methods of assessment vary from state to state with the result that communication is defined in different ways across the country. Furthermore, the operational definitions found in various state assessment practices often don't correspond with those developed through research.

HOW DO STATES EVALUATE COMMUNICATION?
Most states use standardized written examinations and many use performance tests, as well. In 1986, 31 states administered some form of the National Teachers Examination (NTE), while many of the others gave their own written exams. In performance testing, 2 states developed and administered their own standardized speaking tests, 16 required the Listening Section of the NTE Core Battery Exam, 9 used a variety of procedures, and 10 others are developing such tests or considering doing so (McCaleb).

A significant area in which the nine states differ from each other is in the instructions given evaluators concerning their focus and participation in the assessment process. Some states, for example, set the focus on the teacher's performance only, while others include the teacher's classroom interaction with students and the teacher's use of students' ideas in the assessment. The same is true regarding the role given observers. Some states permit assessors to use professional judgment in making final evaluations, while others confine them to recording behaviors for computer analysis, preventing them from knowing how these will combine to pass or fail a teacher (McCaleb).

In performance tests given by the same nine states, 12 categories of communication were defined: oral language usage, fluency, feedback, speech mechanics, subject knowledge, explaining, emphasis, directing, questioning, using students' ideas, interacting with parents, and enthusiasm and nonverbal communication. Not all the states used every category, but in cases where they did use the same ones, different criteria for judging were found--or if the same criteria were used, they may have been assigned different values, giving different degrees of importance to the same set of skills (McCaleb). The danger in these varied and sometimes superficial approaches to communication assessment is that judgments could be based on an incomplete or fragmented picture of a teacher's communication skills (Feezel).

HOW SHOULD COMMUNICATION BE EVALUATED?
State assessments should be designed and implemented according to a valid and coherent conception of the complex process of classroom communication. Assessors need to focus on the many aspects of communication instead of stressing the informing function of explaining and questioning. Other forms of communication skills need to be assessed, particularly interactive ones such as those required in one-on-one conferences and interviews, organizing small group tasks, and leading class discussions. At present, assessment practices emphasize two distinct roles and sets of skills: the teacher-as-speaker (in performance testing) and the teacher-as-listener (through standardized testing). Interactive communication is not adequately assessed, despite the fact that communication is a transactional process, i.e., teachers respond to feedback and alter their explanations since student perceptions require clarification (Brown).

Assessment practices need to take into account additional aspects of a classroom teacher's role, including those that involve persuading or influencing students' behavior and ideas; stimulating self-expression and imagination through creative activities; teaching social rituals such as taking turns and raising hands in class; asking questions, responding to answers, and leading class discussions (Feezel). Evaluations should also include such factors as a teacher's ability to communicate with parents, peers, administrators, and professional leaders. Several states currently have plans to assess teacher-parent communication (Brown).

In addition, assessment officials need to address such issues as validity, reliability, bias and feasibility in the area of oral communication. To be valid, assessments must be based on conceptual clarity and have common objectives for classroom communication. To be reliable, there must be (1) consistent findings among observers monitoring the same individuals, or more training may be indicated to ensure adherence to a common set of standards; (2) adequate monitoring before oral proficiency is determined; (3) equivalence of topics and tasks for rating purposes. To be free of bias, care must be taken to ensure assessments do not favor certain patterns of oral communication. To be feasible, the proposed purchase of any new resource must be subject to a cost-benefit analysis of the time, money, and equipment that would be entailed versus the extent to which the resource would improve assessment of a teacher's classroom performance (Brown).

Furthermore, a distinction must be made in the skill levels that assessments focus on, i.e., facilities (speech mechanics such as clear speech and correct grammar) and critical skills (functions such as explaining, questioning, and giving directions). Putting the focus on critical skills has the advantage of emphasizing the larger goal of instruction while still permitting assessment of instrumental behaviors, but preventing them from becoming ends in themselves (Brown).

DO STATE ASSESSMENTS REFLECT CURRENT RESEARCH?
There are a number of concerns in this area. One is that behavioral checklists do not accurately reflect the complex data obtained from teaching research, presenting the possibility that the complexity of teaching will be obscured and false conclusions drawn about what makes teachers effective. Another is that research findings are being used in teacher assessment instruments without appropriate regard for context, such as grade level, type of student, and objective, i.e., the educational purposes the instruction may be designed to serve. A third is that findings are currently used in teacher assessment instruments without regard for the curricular area being measured, viz., basic skills as opposed to conceptual/aesthetic understandings. A fourth is that the research base may be misused or findings diluted in a simplistic effort to fit an assessment purpose. These shortcomings impose a serious limitation on current assessment instruments (Book and Duffy).

HOW USEFUL IS THE ATTEMPT TO ASSESS COMMUNICATION SKILLS?
The effort to assess communication skills is commendable but the current process carries risks and drawbacks. In particular, it creates the impression that teachers can guarantee successful teaching by simply following certain research-identified behaviors. The phrase, "research says," is often used in an authoritative fashion in professional conference presentations, training sessions for assessment observers, and briefing sessions for teachers, without benefit of research qualifications or critical reviews (Clift).

Secondly, it may limit communications skills considered desirable to those currently assessed, with the result that only those educational purposes readily observed by current instrumentation will be regarded as legitimate (Clift).

Third, the current process may lead to valuing form over content. A teacher who shows superior vocal ability but is dependent on textbook explanations, for example, may be rated above another who is able to explain a difficult concept independently but does not do so in a manner conveying enthusiasm or nonverbal communication as specified by some states. South Carolina, for example, describes this as "intense or dramatic expression in gestures, movements, vocal inflections, or facial changes" (McCaleb, p. 21) (Clift).

Fourth, it results in observation instruments that focus more on teacher behaviors than on student actions because the attempts to link teacher behavior to student achievement (process-product research) make teachers responsible for student learning. Research on learning and memory, however, suggests that students themselves must play an active role in the instruction process. In focusing on instructors' verbal abilities, current assessment practices cast teachers into the role of actors or actresses, overlooking the role that is more appropriate for them, that of classroom directors. It also overlooks the teacher's responsibility for developing students' communication skills as well as students' part in their own instruction (Clift).

Fifth, it handicaps teachers assessed by observers who are unfamiliar with their subject but who, nevertheless, must evaluate their ability to communicate it. This might be overcome to some extent if observers could discuss the lesson with teachers before and after a class, giving them (observers) further opportunity to assess interpersonal skills and to understand a teacher's rationale for presenting the lesson in a certain way (Clift).

It is not necessary to abandon completely the way communications skills are presently identified. However, shortcomings in the current system need to be changed, a range of acceptable alternative behaviors identified, and a more flexible system of assessments implemented (Clift).

REFERENCES
Many of the following references--those identified with an EJ or ED number--have been abstracted and are in the ERIC data base. The journal articles should be available at most research libraries. The documents (citations with an ED numbers) are available on microfiche in ERIC microfiche collections at more than 700 locations. Documents also can be ordered through the ERIC Document Reproduction Service. Call (800) 227-3742 for price and order information. For a list of ERIC collections in your area or for information on submitting documents to ERIC, contact the ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education, One Dupont Circle, NW, Suite 610, Washington, DC 20036, (202) 293-2450.

Allen, R. R., and K. L. Brown. 1976. Developing communication competence in children. Skokie, Ill.: National Textbook.

Book, L. and G. Duffy. 1987. A critique of the research base for assessing communication skills of teachers. How Do Teachers Communicate? A Review and Critique of Assessment Practices. McCaleb, Joseph L., ed. Teacher Education Monograph No. 7. Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education.

Brown, K. L., P. Backlund, J. Gurry, and F. Jandt. 1979. Assessment of basic speaking and listening skills. Boston: Massachusetts Department of Education. ED 178 969.

Clift, R. T. 1987. Is assessing communication an exercise in miscommunication. How Do Teachers Communicate? A Review and Critique of Assessment Practices. McCaleb, J. ed. Teacher Education Monograph No. 7. Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education.

Cooper, P. J. 1986. Communication competencies for teachers: A CAT subcommittee report. Chicago, Ill.: Speech Communication Association. ERIC SP 028 649.

Duffy, G., L. Roehler, and G. Rackliffe. 1986. How teachers' instructional talk influences students' understanding of lesson content. Elementary School Journal 87 (no. 1): 3-16.

McCaleb, J. L. 1984. Selecting a measure of oral communication as a predictor of teaching performance. Journal of Teacher Education 35 (no.5): 33-38.

McCaleb, J. L., ed. 1987. How do teachers communicate? Washington, D.C.: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education. ED 282 872.

McCroskey, J. C. 1977. Quiet children and the classroom teacher. Annandale, Va.: Speech Communication Association/ERIC Clearinghouse on Reading and Communication Skills.

Medley, D. M., H. Coker, and R. S. Soar. 1984. Measurement-based evaluation of teacher performance. New York: Longman.

Morine-Dershimer, G. 1985. Talking, listening, and learning in elementary classrooms. New York: Longman.

Rubin, R. B. 1983. The communication competency assessment instrument. Falls Church, Va.: Speech Communication Association.

Rubin, R. B., and J. D. Feezel. 1986. Elements of teacher communication competence. Communication Education 35: 254-268.

Source: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teacher Education Washington DC

Student Evaluation of Teacher Performance

2008-06-05T23:50:00.002+07:00

Author: Coburn, Louisa

Student evaluation of teacher performance, or student ratings, is one of the most controversial techniques used to identify teacher effectiveness. Few faculty members question the usefulness of ratings in providing feedback about teaching that can result in improved instruction, but many continue to challenge student rating use in making personnel decisions (Marsh and others 1979).

This Digest offers a rationale for the use of student ratings, describes the research findings concerning the validity and reliability of such ratings, and identifies the major issues involved in designing and administering rating forms and reporting their results.

ARGUMENTS IN SUPPORT OF STUDENT RATINGS
Aleamoni (1981) offers the following arguments to support the use of student ratings of teacher performance:

--Students are the main source of information about the learning environment, including teachers' ability to motivate students for continued learning, rapport or degree of communication between instructors and students.

--Students are the most logical evaluators of the quality, the effectiveness of, and satisfaction with course content, method of instruction, textbooks, homework, and student interest.

--Student ratings encourage communication between students and their instructor. This communication may lead to the kind of student and instructor involvement in the teaching-learning process that can raise the level of instruction.

--Student ratings of particular instructors and courses can be used by other students to select courses and instructors, and may increase the chances that excellence in instruction will be recognized and rewarded.

FACULTY CONCERNS AND RESEARCH FINDINGS
Faculty are concerned about the use of student ratings in both formative and summative evaluations for the following reasons: 1) students lack the maturity and expertise to make judgments about course content or instructor style; 2) students' ratings are measures of popularity rather than of ability; 3) the rating forms themselves are both unreliable and invalid; and 4) other variables (such as grades received from the instructor, class size, or whether the course was required or elected) affect student ratings.

Research that addresses each of these issues is summarized below.

Student Immaturity
According to Peterson and Kauchak (1982), "researchers found that student ratings of teachers are consistent among students and reliable from one year to the next." Aleamoni (1981) cites research that indicates that "the correlation between student ratings of the same instructors and courses ranged from .70 to .87."

Student Ratings as Measures of Popularity
Citing his own research, Aleamoni (1981) found that udents frankly praised instuctors for their warm, friendly, humorous manner in the classroom, but if their courses were not well-organized or their methods of stimulating students to learn were poor, the students equally frankly criticized them in those areas."

Researchers cited by Peterson and Kauchak (1982) found that "students can successfully differentiate between teaching effectiveness and other affective dimensions such as attitude, interest, and friendliness of the teacher."

Student Rating Forms
Research evidence supports the view that carefully constructed evaluation instruments with well-developed procedures for their administration can yield high internal consistency reliabilities. Most of the research evidence supporting the validity of rating forms in which student ratings were compared to other methods of evaluation (colleague ratings, student learning measures, and expert judges' ratings) indicates the existence of high to moderate positive correlations.

Grades
According to Aleamoni (1981), "correlational studies have reported widely inconsistent grade-rating relationships. Some 22 studies have reported zero relationships while another 28 studies have reported significant positive relationships. In most instances, however, these relationships were relatively weak."

Class Size
Research is also divided on this issue. The belief that instructors of larger classes receive lower ratings is supported by the results of some studies and refuted by others.

Required Versus Elected Courses
Most of the reported research seems to support the belief that students who are required to take a course rate it lower than students who elect to take the same course.

DESIGNING THE RATING FORMS
Rating forms can be adopted from other institutions, or constructed by students, faculty, administrators, or committees. Experts in questionnaire design should be involved in the development of student rating forms to avoid producing a finished questionnaire that reflects a bias toward any one aspect of instructional effectiveness.

It is most important to decide the purpose of the form. Formative evaluation requires information that can be used by the instructor to modify and improve instruction. Summative evaluation requires information that can be used by a third party for decisions about promotion, tenure, or merit pay. Each kind of evaluation requires that decisions be made about the content, level of inference, and type of item response.

ADMINISTERING THE RATING FORMS
The method of administering and gathering student responses can determine the quality of the resulting data. If possible, the responsibility should be given to instructional development or testing personnel.

Regardless of who does the actual administration, a standard set of instructions and a designated time limit for filling out the questionnaire are essential. Informal administration can lead to bias in the ratings, low return of the forms, or less than candid responses on the part of students.

REPORTING THE RESULTS
If the results of student ratings are not reported in a timely manner, their usefulness can be compromised. Decisions must be made about whether to return the actual form or summaries of the data to the instructor. If the actual forms are returned, then the instructors should be given a method of tabulating and summarizing their own results so that they can avoid concentrating on negative or positive feedback alone.

One of the most important decisions to be made is who will see or use the results. Faculty have the right to know how the results will be reported and should be given the option of releasing copies of the results if the evaluation is not mandatory. To avoid subjective interpretations by third parties, it is recommended that students' actual written comments not be reported to the student body or the administration.

Results of the ratings can be reported in student newspapers or student published books. Reporting the results in this way is most effective if it is done in a positive manner with only the most highly rated instructors or courses listed.

Finally, Aleamoni (1981) is careful to point out that the way student ratings are used is of utmost importance. All who use the ratings must be careful to avoid placing inappropriate emphasis on selected student responses. Ideally, student ratings are but one component of a comprehensive instructional evaluation system.

FOR MORE INFORMATION
Aleamoni, Lawrence M. "Student Ratings of Instruction." In HANDBOOK OF TEACHER EVALUATION, edited by Jason Millman. Beverly Hills, CA: SAGE Publications, 1981.

Benton, Sidney E. RATING COLLEGE TEACHING: CRITERION VALIDITY STUDIES OF STUDENT EVALUATION-OF-INSTRUCTION INSTRUMENTS. AAHE-ERIC/Higher Education Research Report No. 1. Washington, D.C.: American Association for Higher Education, 1982. ED 221 147.

Marsh, Herbert W., and others. "Validity of Student Evaluations of Instructional Effectiveness: A Comparison of Faculty Self-Evaluations and Evaluations by their Students." JOURNAL OF EDUCATIONAL PSYCHOLOGY 71 (April 1979):149-160.

Peterson, Ken, and D. Kauchak. TEACHER EVALUATION: PERSPECTIVES, PRACTICES, AND PROMISES. Salt Lake City, UT: Utah University, Center for Educational Practice, 1982. ED 233 996.

From ERICdigest.org

World Wide Web Resources for Teaching

2008-06-04T04:32:00.003+07:00

World Wide Web Resources for Teaching and Learning Economics.
Author: VanFossen, Phillip J.

We live in an information-rich society, one in which, via various forms of technology, information on almost any topic can be obtained nearly instantaneously. The proliferation of such information technology has begun to make its way into the nation's schools in the form of, among other things, instructional resources such as videodiscs, CD-ROMs and other computer-driven materials, and the nearly ubiquitous World Wide Web (WWW). Indeed, in 1996, 64% of schools nationwide had WWW access (Coley et al., 1997).

Technological resources abound for teachers of all subject areas and all grade levels, but for many reasons, such instructional technology seems to lend itself to the social studies at least as well as for any other subject area (Braun et al., 1998). Certainly this is true in the realm of economic education (Boldt et al., 1994). Leu, et al. (1997), however, found that many teachers who tried to employ the WWW in their teaching lacked the skills needed to efficiently use the resource. As a result, these teachers and their students often wasted time endlessly "surfing" the WWW for content-specific sites. In an attempt to aid the economic educator in using the WWW more efficiently and effectively in classroom instruction, this ERIC Digest provides an overview of WWW sites that can be used to improve instruction in K-12 economic education. This review will follow the major categories of WWW usage outlined by Leu et al., (1997) and others in this field: (1) The World Wide Web as a teacher resource, (2) The World Wide Web as a student resource, and (3) interactive World Wide Web-based lessons.

INSTRUCTIONAL RESOURCES FOR TEACHERS
Teachers who use the WWW as an instructional resource are interested in acquiring knowledge of economic concepts and principles (e.g., supply and demand, marginal cost, etc.) and in identifying instructional plans that might be used to teach these various economics concepts. The following WWW sites are excellent examples:

* THE NATIONAL COUNCIL ON ECONOMIC EDUCATION (NCEE) WEBSITE

provides descriptions of the NationalCouncil and its two outreach programs, EconomicsAmerica andEconomicsInternational. Readers can access an on-line version of the NCEEcurriculum catalog and order materials. In addition, each of the 20"Voluntary National Content Standards in Economics" (Meszaros 1997) can beprinted or downloaded from a link at this site. These "Standards" includestudent performance benchmarks that outline what economic content shouldbe covered at various grade levels.

* EcEdWeb , developed by the University of Nebraska at Omaha's (UNO) Center for Economic Education, is the most comprehensive economic education site on the WWW. EcEdWeb provides support for economics teachers across all grade levels in its "Economics Resources for K-12 Teachers" section. Here teachers can access curriculum materials, including lesson plans for teaching various economics concepts, suggestions for integrating the WWW into teaching, and useful Internet and WWW sites for developing both teacher and student background in economics. Perhaps the most useful aspect of EcEdWeb for economic educators is the link to the homepage for "Economics is Elementary," a course offered by the UNO Center for Economic Education. Here teachers can find the course reading list, links to other economics lessons and Web sites, and a variety of Web-based ideas for incorporating economics into the elementary grades.

* CyberTeach provides an overview of using the WWW to teach economics. Readers can access a guide that makes it easy for teachers to access web sites that inform and enliven any economics curriculum. These sites include information on basic web skills, provide examples of lessons that teach economic concepts, and give step-by-step instructions on how to construct economics lessons using the Internet.

* CyberEconomics is a multi-media site designed to provide an interactive supplement to a course on the principles of economics. The author of CyberEconomics has developed a complete, hypertext-based course in introductory microeconomic and macroeconomic concepts. Classroom teachers searching for answers to their economic content questions should begin their search here.

INFORMATIONAL RESOURCES FOR STUDENTS
When students use the WWW to acquire knowledge and gather information, they can "expand their understanding of important concepts and communicate these ideas more effectively" (Leu, et al. 1997, 14). Indeed, one of the most powerful aspects of the WWW is its ability to provide access to the most up-to-date information available. Carr (1994) indicated that the use of current information about economics found in newspapers and magazines could enhance all students' understanding and appreciation of economics. Several of the following student resource sites provide access to, in some cases, up-to-the minute economic information.

* USA Today's Economy Track provides students with practical articles and statistics on all aspects of the United States' economic conditions. Many of the charts and graphs can be downloaded and used to develop data analysis lessons.

* Orley Amos' Pedestrian's Guide to the Economy was written and is maintained by a professor of economics at Oklahoma State University. Using simple, easy to understand terms, Professor Amos explains even very difficult economic concepts clearly. The text is hyper-linked to an on-line glossary of economic terms and the topics of the case studies discussed (education, professional sports, etc.) are all relevant to students' lives. An interesting feature of this site is the "self-test" on a variety of economic topics that readers can take, submit for corrections, and receive feedback on.

* EconomicsMinute helps students explore the economics behind the news of the week. EconomicsMinute provides links to newspapers and news channels, classroom discussion questions, and suggested classroom activities, all of which can enhance current events discussions in any subject area.

INTERACTIVE INSTRUCTIONAL ACTIVITIES
The final category of WWW usage involves students going beyond simply using the WWW as an information resource and actually participating in on-line instructional activities. Perhaps the best model of this type of activity is the WebQuest (Dodge 1995). These interactive modules require students to complete a specific, content-oriented task for which all necessary resources are embedded in the on-line lesson using hypertext. Several of the examples listed below employ a modified WebQuest design.

* NetNewsLine is a recent addition to the NCEE Website and is co-sponsored by MCI. NetNewsLine features truly interactive Web-based lessons developed around timely topics in economics (e.g., the "economics" of professional sports). Students are given a variety of tasks--including conducting research and creating reports--all of which must be completed using WWW-based resources.

* SMG2000 is an on-line simulation of the popular Securities Industry Association's Stock Market Game (Wood et al., 1992). SMG2000 is a new version of The Stock Market Game. Students are given a hypothetical account of $100,000 and enter their transactions using the Internet. Students can access their portfolios the following business day.

* Escape from Knab is an on-line simulation in which students venture to planet Knab ("a strange and slimy place") and, in order to survive, must make a number of successful decisions after weighing various consequences. Because students must engage in cost-benefit analysis and allocate scarce resources, this simulation provides several economics-based teaching opportunities.

CONCLUSION
The WWW is a powerful resource for all economic educators and their students. This ERIC Digest has provided an overview of several WWW-based resources for teaching and learning K-12 economics. While this list is necessarily truncated, the sites presented here can be considered among the best and are certainly an excellent place for the neophyte user to begin.

REFERENCES AND ERIC RESOURCES
Boldt, David J. "The Internet: A Curriculum Warehouse for Social Studies Teachers." SOCIAL STUDIES 86 (May/June 1995): 105-112. EJ 510 826.

Boldt, David J., Leland Gustafson, and Jack Johnson. "The Internet: A Resource in the Teaching of Economics and Beyond." BUSINESS EDUCATION FORUM 49 (October, 1994): 23-26. EJ 490 455.

Braun, Joseph, Phyllis Fernlund, and Charles White. TECHNOLOGY TOOLS IN THE SOCIAL STUDIES CLASSROOM. Wilsonville, OR: Franklin, Beedle and Associates, 1998.

Carr, Fred M. "Enhancing K-12 Economic Education with Contemporary Information Resources." CLEARINGHOUSE 67 (July/August 1994): 348-353. EJ 490 768.

Coley, Richard, John Cradler, and Penelope K. Engel. COMPUTERS AND CLASSROOMS: THE STATUS OF TECHNOLOGY IN U.S. SCHOOLS. Policy Information Report. Princeton, NJ: Educational Testing Service, 1997. ED 412 893.

Dodge, Bernie. "WebQuests: A Technique for Internet-Based Learning." DISTANCE EDUCATOR 1 (Summer 1995): 10-13. EJ 518 478.

Leu, Donald, Deborah Diadiun Leu, and Katherine R. Len. TEACHING WITH THE INTERNET: LESSONS FROM THE CLASSROOM. Norwood, MA: Christopher Gordon Publishers, 1997. ED 412 922.

Meszaros, Bonnie. "Economic Standards: A Guide for Curriculum Planners." SOCIAL EDUCATION 61 (October 1997): 324-27. EJ 557 561.

Wood, William C., and Alice M. Agogino. "Engineering Courseware Content Delivery." JOURNAL OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR INFORMATION SCIENCE 47 (November 1996): 863-869. EJ 539 652.

Wood, William C., and others. "The Stock Market Game: Classroom Use and Strategy." JOURNAL OF ECONOMIC EDUCATION 23 (Summer 1992): 236-246. EJ 458 441.

Yoshimura, Miles. "Economics Internet Sites for Reference Librarians." REFERENCE LIBRARIAN 57 (1997): 127-137. EJ 552 609.

Source: ERIC Clearinghouse for Social Studies/Social Science Education Bloomington IN.

When Teacher Make a Mistake

2008-05-30T05:58:00.007+07:00

Review Articel

Any body may make mistakes. Teacher also make mistakes when teach. What should we do when we make a mistake in teaching? Wendy Petty from EducationWorld.com gives tips to us. She said

"I've watched a math teacher make a careless mistake during a mini-lesson, and no one said anything during the long minutes that the mistake remained on the chalkboard. I've wondered, "Do the students not notice? Or do they think it's disrespectful to correct the teacher?"

Read the complete articel to get the great ideas to face our mistake. Here ....

Teacher Tips

2008-05-30T05:06:00.002+07:00

The Tips below come from teachers who gives commentary on Help4teachers.com newslatter, i will update here more ...

On every assessment that affects student grades, I always put their current grade in the bottom left corner of their paper. This way they get immediate feedback on how this affected their grade and know their status in the course. Heather Netland, Parkers Prairie High School, MN
Use Hip-Hop to teach poetry and figurative language. Nora Kings, Four Directions Charter School, Minneapolis, MN.
Use large, "rich" words to encourage students to ask, "What's that mean?". Jane Bartlett, Parkers Prairie Elem., MN
For small group discussions, I give each student 3 paper clips. Put one cup in the center of the group. Each time you share an idea, you put one of your paper clips in the cup. When you're out of clips, you need to hold off any more ideas until others are finished. Discussion goes til all clips are in the cup then we share our discussions between groups. (no name) Workshop participant, MN.
Each row of desks is named by the days of the week. Students line up for lunch, recess, etc. according to what day it is. This way everyone gets a chance for the front of the line. ( a big deal for 2nd graders). Colleen Brandt, Rothsay Public, MN.
Change your phone voice mail daily to announce your homework assignment. Parents also appreciate knowing even if there isn't homework. This works well for absent students too. Cathy Malotka, Saginaw Public Schools, MI.
Never throw away those "junk" refrigerator magnets. Just rubber-cement things to them to post material on your magnetic white board. Roger Bachmeir, Long-Prairie Grey Eagle middle, MN.
Have students write positive affirmations about each other. Then place a positive affirmation on the student's desk. Tamera Peterson, Rothsay Public School, MN.

Constructivism in Teacher Education

2008-05-30T04:33:00.002+07:00

Constructivism in Teacher Education: Considerations for Those Who Would Link Practice to Theory.
ERIC Digest, Abdal-Haqq, Ismat

In recent years, constructivism has received considerable attention in education scholarship, practitioner preparation, and policy formation (MacKinnon & Scarff-Seatter, 1997; Richardson, 1997; Teets & Starnes, 1996). It has been heralded as a more natural, relevant, productive, and empowering framework for instructing both P-12 and teacher education students (Cannella & Reiff, 1994). This Digest identifies major forms of constructivism and considers issues and challenges that surface when implementing constructivist approaches to preservice and inservice teacher education.

WHAT IS CONSTRUCTIVISM?
Constructivism is an epistemology, a learning or meaning-making theory, that offers an explanation of the nature of knowledge and how human beings learn. It maintains that individuals create or construct their own new understandings or knowledge through the interaction of what they already know and believe and the ideas, events, and activities with which they come in contact (Cannella & Reiff, 1994; Richardson, 1997). Knowledge is acquired through involvement with content instead of imitation or repetition (Kroll & LaBoskey, 1996). Learning activities in constructivist settings are characterized by active engagement, inquiry, problem solving, and collaboration with others. Rather than a dispenser of knowledge, the teacher is a guide, facilitator, and co-explorer who encourages learners to question, challenge, and formulate their own ideas, opinions, and conclusions. "Correct" answers and single interpretations are de-emphasized.

As an approach to teaching, constructivism may be examined as much for what it is NOT as for what it is. It challenges what Oldfather, Bonds, and Bray (1994) characterize as the default mode in education--an empiricist/reductionist approach to teaching and learning. They cite Freire who considers this approach to be a "banking" model--the teacher fills students with deposits of information considered by the teacher to be true knowledge, and the students store these deposits, intact, until needed. Cannella & Reiff (1994) label these traditional models didactic, memory-oriented transmission models. Constructivists generally maintain that when information is acquired through transmission models, it is not always well integrated with prior knowledge and is often accessed and articulated only for formal academic occasions such as exams (Richardson, 1997). Constructivist approaches, in contrast, are regarded as producing greater internalization and deeper understanding than traditional methods.

While there are commonly accepted attributes of constructivism, there are also different interpretations of it. Vadeboncoeur (1997) identifies three significant strands within these interpretations--Piagetian, sociocultural, and emancipatory constructivism--strands differentiated primarily by (1) the subject of study, (2) views about how cognitive forms develop, and (3) "the liberatory power of the pedagogical approaches derived" (p. 22). In general, two broad interpretations can be found among contemporary educators--psychological constructivism, most notably articulated by Piaget, and social constructivism, associated with Vygotsky. Two major issues shape these interpretations: (1) education for individual development versus education for social transformation and (2) the degree of influence that social context has on individual cognitive development (Richardson, 1997; Vadeboncoeur, 1997).

PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
Psychological or Piagetian constructivists generally regard the purpose of education as educating the individual child in a fashion that supports the child's interests and needs; consequently, the child is the subject of study, and individual cognitive development is the emphasis. Learning is primarily an individualistic enterprise. This is a child-centered approach that seeks to identify, through scientific study, the natural path of cognitive development (Vadeboncoeur, 1997). This approach assumes that students come to classrooms with ideas, beliefs, and opinions that need to be altered or modified by a teacher who facilitates this alteration by devising tasks and questions that create dilemmas for students. Knowledge construction occurs as a result of working through these dilemmas. Characteristic instructional practices include "discovery learning" and hands-on activities, such as using manipulatives; student tasks that challenge existing concepts and thinking processes; and questioning techniques that probe students' beliefs and encourage examination and testing of those beliefs (Richardson, 1997).
To a large extent, this approach assumes that development is an ingrained, natural, biological process that is pretty much the same for all individuals, regardless of gender, class, race, or the social or cultural context in which learning and living take place (Vadeboncoeur, 1997). Internal development is the focus of the teaching environment, and the social and historical context, as well as issues of power, authority, and the place of formal knowledge in the learning environment are not emphasized (Richardson, 1997). It is essentially a decontextualized approach to learning and teaching. Critics of the psychological constructivist approach deprecate its lack of attention to "the influence of the classroom culture and the broader social context" (Vadeboncoeur, 1997), as well as disregard for power issues, particularly power issues related to knowledge production (Martin, 1994; Richardson, 1997; Vadeboncoeur, 1997).

SOCIAL CONSTRUCTIVISM
Social or Vygotskian constructivism emphasizes education for social transformation and reflects a theory of human development that situates the individual within a sociocultural context. Individual development derives from social interactions within which cultural meanings are shared by the group and eventually internalized by the individual (Richardson, 1997). Individuals construct knowledge in transaction with the environment, and in the process both the individual and the environment are changed. The subject of study is the dialectical relationship between the individual and the social and cultural milieu.

Schools are the sociocultural settings where teaching and learning take place and where "cultural tools," such as reading, writing, mathematics, and certain modes of discourse are utilized (Richardson, 1997). This approach assumes that theory and practice do not develop in a vacuum; they are shaped by dominant cultural assumptions (Martin, 1994; O'Loughlin, 1995). Both formal knowledge, the subject of instruction, and the manner of its presentation are influenced by the historical and cultural environment that generated them. To accomplish the goals of social transformation and reconstruction, the context of education must be deconstructed, and the cultural assumptions, power relationships, and historical influences that undergird it must be exposed, critiqued, and, when necessary, altered (Myers, 1996). Variants of social constructivism include situated constructivism, social reconstructivism, sociocultural constructivism, sociohistorical constructivism, and emancipatory constructivism.

CONSTRUCTIVIST FRAMEWORKS IN TEACHER EDUCATION
While it may inform and influence practice, constructivism is a theory of learning, not a theory of teaching (Wolffe & McMullen, 1996), and translating theory to practice is both difficult and imprecise (MacKinnon & Scarf-Seatter, 1997). However, education literature documents several large- and small-scale efforts to do so (DeJong & Grooms, 1996; Kaufman, 1996; Richardson, 1997). For example, as part of a statewide education reform initiative, University of Louisville faculty, supported by funding from the Kentucky Department of Education, developed 11 guiding principles and possible indicators of constructivist teaching (Fischetti, Dittmer, & Kyle, 1996). The venerable Foxfire Project devised 11 core practices that reflect the constructivist underpinnings of the Foxfire approach to teaching and professional development, which has evolved over a 30-year period (Teets & Starnes, 1996).

Constructivist teacher education generally reflects two major traditions--the developmental and social reconstructionist traditions (Canella & Reiff, 1994). Programs influenced by the developmental tradition attempt to teach students how to teach in a constructivist, generally Piagetian, manner. They are typically characterized by substantial direct instruction in theory and practice, often without complementary opportunities for inquiry, discovery, or self-examination. This approach can easily become overly prescriptive. If this occurs, the teacher educator models an approach to teaching that is essentially antithetical to the approach students are intended to employ in their future classrooms (Oldfather, Bonds, & Bray, 1994).

Programs influenced by social reconstructionist tradition attempt to help teacher education students deconstruct their own prior knowledge and attitudes, comprehend how these understandings evolved, explore the effects they have on actions and behavior, and consider alternate conceptions and premises that may be more serviceable in teaching. Critical analysis and structured reflection on formal course knowledge and everyday practical experience are incorporated.

Richardson (1997) identifies two factors that appear to affect the approach teachers and teacher educators take in forming constructivist settings--the extent to which the social is acknowledged as a critical factor in learning and individual cognitive development and the specific content, subject matter, or discipline. Some subjects, such as mathematics, are more "bounded" than others by rules, formulae, and procedures. They are more likely to be regarded by teachers as producing problems and tasks to which there are "correct" answers. Individual interpretations and construction of ideas and concepts are less likely to be encouraged by teachers than in subjects such as literature and writing.

CHALLENGES
The overarching challenge constructivism presents to teachers and teacher educators is the formidable task of translating a learning theory into a theory of teaching (MacKinnon & Scarff-Seatter, 1997), which in turn raises questions about what teachers need to know and be able to do. For teacher educators, among other tasks, this involves balancing the need to acknowledge the different discipline-specific requirements of teaching with the need to model constructivist methods in teacher education courses and practicums. Richardson (1997) also notes the limits of a perspective on teaching that values students' understandings at the expense of "right" answers. Student knowledge becomes idiosyncratic; 30 different students may arrive at 30 different understandings or interpretations of a concept, all of which are not equally appropriate. Inappropriately applied, constructivist approaches may lead to the "abandonment" style of teaching (MacKinnon & Scarff-Seatter, 1997).

Several authors cite the importance of teacher educators' modeling constructivist approaches that engage students in interdisciplinary exploration, collaborative activity, and field-based opportunities for experiential learning, reflection, and self-examination (Kaufman, 1996; Kroll & LaBosky, 1996) if future teachers are to be able to employ these strategies in schools.

To derive culturally relevant and socially just pedagogy and practice from constructivist epistemologies, Martin (1994) and Vadeboncoeur (1997) urge teacher educators to deconstruct and scrutinize cultural assumptions that underlie various interpretations of constructivism to expose how social beliefs have influenced the development of theory and practices. Without such scrutiny, societal inequities and historical forms of oppression may be perpetuated in supposedly constructivist classrooms, and the very constraints on individual development constructivists seek to remove or ameliorate will be reinforced.

A final challenge faced by educators is the pitfall of regarding constructivism as the only viable theoretical framework for teaching and learning. It is one way of thinking about how knowledge and understanding are formed, but it is not the only way. Nor are various interpretations of constructivism necessarily incompatible with one another (MacKinnon & Scarff-Seatter, 1997; Oldfather, Bonds, & Bray, 1994). Prospective teachers should be exposed to varying perspectives and given opportunities to develop the discretion needed to choose most appropriately and the skills to implement their choices.

REFERENCES
Cannella, G. S., & Reiff, J. C. (1994). Individual constructivist teacher education: Teachers as empowered learners. TEACHER EDUCATION QUARTERLY 21(3), 27-38. EJ 498 429
DeJong, L., & Groomes, F. (1996). A constructivist teacher education program that incorporates community service to prepare students to work with children living in poverty. ACTION IN TEACHER EDUCATION 18(2), 86-95. EJ 536 849

Fischetti, J., Dittmer, A., & Kyle, D. W. (1996). Shifting paradigms: Emerging issues for educational policy and practice. TEACHER EDUCATOR 31(3), 189-201. EJ 525 345

Kaufman, D. (1996). Constructivist-based experiential learning in teacher education. ACTION IN TEACHER EDUCATION 18(2), 40-49. EJ 536 845

Kroll, L. R., & LaBosky, V. K. (1996). Practicing what we preach: Constructivism in a teacher education program. ACTION IN TEACHER EDUCATION 18(2), 63-72. EJ 536 947

MacKinnon, A., & Scarff-Seatter, C. (1997). Constructivism: Contradictions and confusion in teacher education. In V. Richardson (Ed.), CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHER EDUCATION: BUILDING NEW UNDERSTANDINGS (pp.38-55). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.

Martin, R. J. (1994). Multicultural social reconstructionist education: Design for diversity in teacher education. TEACHER EDUCATION QUARTERLY 21(3), 77-89. EJ 492 141

Myers, C. B. (1996, April). BEYOND PDSs: SCHOOLS AS PROFESSIONAL LEARNING COMMUNITIES. A PROPOSAL BASED ON AN ANALYSIS OF PDS EFFORTS OF THE 1990'S. Paper presented at the annual meeting of the American Educational Research Association, New York. ED 400 227

Oldfather, P., Bonds, S., & Bray, T. (1994). Drawing the circle: Collaborative mind mapping as a process for developing a constructivist teacher education program. TEACHER EDUCATION QUARTERLY 21(3), 5-13. EJ 492 137

O'Loughlin, M. (1995). Daring the imagination: Unlocking voices of dissent and possibility in teaching. THEORY INTO PRACTICE 24(2), 107-116. EJ 512 860

Richardson, V. (1997). Constructivist teaching and teacher education: Theory and practice. In V. Richardson (Ed.), CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHER EDUCATION: BUILDING NEW UNDERSTANDINGS (pp. 3-14). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.

Teets, S. T., & Starnes, B. A. (1996). Foxfire: Constructivism for teachers and learners. ACTION IN TEACHER EDUCATION 18(2), 31-39. EJ 536 844

Vadeboncoeur, J. (1997). Child development and the purpose of education: A historical context for constructivism in teacher education. In V. Richardson (Ed.), CONSTRUCTIVIST TEACHER EDUCATION: BUILDING NEW UNDERSTANDINGS (pp. 15-37). Washington, DC: Falmer Press.

Wolffe, R. J., & McMullen, D. W. (1996). The constructivist connection: Linking theory, best practice, and technology. JOURNAL OF COMPUTING IN TEACHER EDUCATION 12(2), 25-28. EJ 526 775

Republished From Ericdigest.org

Effective Teaching in Distance Education

2008-05-30T04:17:00.004+07:00

Author: Mielke, Dan

For over 100 years, distance education has served as an alternative method for delivering academic course work to students unable to attend traditional campus-based classes. The format of distance education varies from correspondence-style courses to technologically based courses using the Internet. Distance education offers students considerable benefits, including increased access to learning, lifelong learning opportunities, and convenience of time and place (St. Pierre, 1998). Distance education may be essential for learners who are truly place-bound because of factors such as employment, child-care demands, disability, or remoteness of the location where they live (Rintala, 1998). This digest presents information on the many forms distance education can take and keys to successful teaching with distance education.

WHAT IS DISTANCE EDUCATION?
Distance education is a method of education in which the learner is physically separated from the teacher and the institution sponsoring the instruction. It may be used on its own, or in conjunction with other forms of education, including face-to-face instruction. In any distance education process there must be a teacher, one or more students, and a course or curriculum that the teacher is capable of teaching and the student is trying to learn. The contract between teacher and learner, whether in a traditional classroom or distance education, requires that the student be taught, assessed, given guidance and, where appropriate, prepared for examinations that may or may not be conducted by the institution. This must be accomplished by two-way communication. Learning may be undertaken either individually or in groups; in either case, it is accomplished in the physical absence of the teacher in distance education. Where distance teaching materials are provided to learners, they are structured in ways that facilitate learning at a distance.

FORMS OF DISTANCE EDUCATION
In its original form, teachers using distance education traveled to remote sites and taught a class, or corresponded with students through mail, telephone, or fax machine. Individualized study has been a method of reaching the remote student for some time. Detailed course instructions are sent to the learner who performs the assigned tasks and returns the completed work to the teacher for evaluation and reassignment if necessary.

Technology has raised the quality of individualized distance instruction. The use of various forms of electronic media increases time effectiveness and improves the delivery of information. Video, audio, and computer-based applications may enhance the product received by the independent learner. Electronic delivery can occur using synchronous communication, in which class members participate at the same time, or asynchronous communication where participants are separated by time (Romiszowski, 1993).

Video/audio models of distance education include broadcast television, cable television, satellite, microwave, fiber optics, and audio graphics. The most widely used format is broadcast and cable television (Parrott, 1995). However, developments in satellite and fiber optic systems have produced other successful programs. The interactive capability of many of these networks has produced a distance classroom that is nearly identical to a regular classroom. Teachers and students can interact through both two-way video and one-way video with two-way audio systems. The recent development of Desktop Video Conferencing (DVC) which brings interactive video capability to the desktop computer, further enhances learning opportunities.

The linking of computer technology through the use of the Internet or CD-ROM with television transmission provides a potentially new dimension to distance education. This technique can link university professors to high school teachers, or to physically disabled students, in a distance setting (McLean, 1996).

Another form of interaction is the use of computer conferencing. This method utilizes asynchronous communication in such forms as an e-mail list group, an Internet discussion group, or other types of conferencing software. Asynchronous methods of communication are especially appealing to the learner who has difficulty scheduling specific time- and place-bound course work.

ADAPTABILITY
Distance education can be used for some aspects of most disciplines. For example, several institutions of higher education already have developed certificate programs, undergraduate programs, and graduate programs in health and physical education that are delivered using distance education methods. Eastern Oregon University, Emporia State University, Kutztown University, LaSalle University, the Medical College of Wisconsin, University of Wisconsin at Stevens Point, and Virginia Tech are among institutions integrating distance technology into their physical education programs.

Traditional programs that are heavily based in skill development and demonstration or require laboratory work can be offered in a distance education framework using interactive video interfaced with computers to facilitate a hands-on learning approach at a distance. Classes that use lecture and laboratory experiences are easily adapted to a distance education situation. Course materials, including animals for dissection, are sent to class participants with video and written instructions and assignments.

EFFECTIVE TEACHING AND LEARNING WITH DISTANCE EDUCATION
Distance education dictates changes in behavior for both the teacher and the learner. The successful student develops persistence and skills in self-directing work. The successful distance education teacher becomes conversant with new technology and develops new instructional styles, moving from creating instruction to managing resources and students and disseminating views (Strain, 1987). Administrative and faculty support for distance education are critical to the success of this instructional method. Administrators should take note that the implementation of a distance education program may allow access to a greater number of students. However, the time and work associated with teaching at a distance exceeds the normal requirements of campus-based instruction.
Students in distance education settings perform as well or better on assignments, class activities, and exams when compared to campus-based students (St. Pierre, 1998). Nevertheless, students must maintain persistence and a clear focus to succeed in a distance learning situation. Self-direction, a passion for learning, and strong individual responsibility are important influences on achievement. There are indications that distance education works best for more mature, motivated, well-organized, and already accomplished learners (Rintala, 1998).

Garrels (1997) describes five critical elements for successful teaching at a distance:

1. Instructor enthusiasm. This requires animation and comfort in front of the camera, or with the technology utilized. Faculty support and interest are critical to the success of distance learning endeavors.

2. Organization. Teaching materials must be prepared in advance; timing, variation, and smooth transitions must be planned. Instructors should allocate from 3 to 5 hours of preparation for each hour of distance instruction. Great attention to detail is required long before the actual classroom activity occurs (Summers, 1997).

3. Strong commitment to student interaction. Whatever the modality used to teach at a distance, the instructor must encourage and facilitate ongoing communication between the students and the instructor.

4. Familiarity with the technology used in the class format. Faculty development is important before beginning any distance activities, and instructors should be trained in video use, computer use, or other forms of instructional technology used.

5. Critical support personnel. Production staff, graphic designers, and technical staff members will help the instructional setting produce successful teaching at a distance.

CONCLUSION
The potential use of distance education within all disciplines is tremendous as this application to higher education evolves within our culture. Distance education is not a panacea for the difficulties and barriers encountered in traditional educational settings, but it does provide the potential for greater service to more individuals seeking learning opportunities.

REFERENCES
Garrels, M. (1997). Dynamic relationships: Five critical elements for teaching at a distance. Faculty Development Papers. Available online at: Indiana Higher Education Telecommunication System (http://www.ihets.org/distance_ed/fdpapers/1997/garrels.htm l).

McLean, D. D. (1996). Use of computer-based technology in health, physical education, recreation, and dance. ERIC Digest 94-7. Washington, DC: ERIC Clearinghouse on Teaching and Teacher Education. ED 390 874

Parrott, S. (1995). Future learning: Distance education in community colleges. ERIC Digest 95-2. Los Angeles, CA: ERIC Clearinghouse on Community Colleges. ED 385 311

Rintala, J. (1998). Computer technology in higher education: An experiment, not a solution. Quest, 50(4), 366-378. EJ 576 392 Romiszowski, A. (1993). Telecommunications and distance education. ERIC Digest 93-2. Syracuse, NY: ERIC Clearinghouse on Information Resources. ED 358 841

St. Pierre, P. (1998). Distance learning in physical education teacher education. Quest, 50(4), 344-356. EJ 576 391

Strain, J. (1987). The role of the faculty member in distance education. American Journal of Distance Education, 1 (2).

Summers, M. (1997). From a distance: Or, how I learned to love my "tv" class. Faculty Development Papers. Available online at: Indiana Higher Education Telecommunication System (http://www.ihets.org/distance_ed/fdpapers/1997/summers.html).

Source: EricDigest.org